This book has examined the lives of non-Muslims in Iranian society during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In towns and cities, religious communities often lived in distinct quarters or maintained separate villages on the margins of urban life. Within these spaces, they enjoyed limited autonomy – practicing rituals, constructing temples, and later establishing schools. Beyond these confines, however, they were readily identifiable by clothing, language, and accent, and their interactions with Muslims were constrained by local power structures. Restrictions affected where they could live and work, even as they were paradoxically entrusted with sensitive professions such as banking, moneylending, and goldsmithing. This tension – between trust and suspicion, purity and impurity – shaped broader social attitudes and reinforced their classification as outsiders.