Cognitive Competencies and Signals of Risk

doi:10.1017/9781108643719.011

9 - Cognitive Competencies and Signals of Risk

from Part One - Factors Influencing Language Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 August 2022

Jenna Charlton and

Edited by

Sheena Reilly and

James Law: Affiliation:
University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Sheena Reilly: Affiliation:
Griffith University, Queensland
Cristina McKean: Affiliation:
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Book contents

Get access

Summary

In this chapter, we consider children's early language acquisition as it develops alongside three other core cognitive competencies: children's understanding of objects, children's understanding of the thoughts and feelings of others (i.e. their theory of mind), and children's knowledge of numbers and mathematical principles. We argue that while early language acquisition is initially supported by these three other competencies, the acquisition of words transforms them by providing a method for children to communicate and organise the information obtained through them. We do this by describing the key milestones occurring within each of the competencies and the genetic and environmental factors which place them at risk, with findings derived from a systematic review of cohort studies in English-speaking countries. A key message is that genetic and environmental circumstances are inextricably linked in predicting early cognitive development, and that some factors are reliably stronger in predicting poor outcomes than others. Additionally, there is clear evidence that income-related disparities are reliably measurable from the age of 3 and then steadily increase throughout the remainder of childhood.

Keywords

developmental competency language theory of mind number change over time differential susceptibility developmental cascade implications for intervention

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Language Development
Individual Differences in a Social Context
, pp. 193 - 230
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108643719.011 [Opens in a new window]
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Alati, R., Smith, G. D., Lewis, S. J., Sayal, K., Draper, E. S., Golding, J., … & Gray, R. (2013). Effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on childhood academic outcomes: Contrasting maternal and paternal associations in the ALSPAC study. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e74844.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Alderson-Day, B., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Inner speech: Development, cognitive functions, phenomenology, and neurobiology. Psychological Bulletin, 141(5), 931–965.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Asmussen, K., Law, J., Charlton, J., Acquah, D., Brims, L., Pote, I., & McBride, T (2018). Key competencies in early cognitive development: Things, people, numbers and words London: Early Intervention Foundation. Full Report. London: Early Intervention Foundation.Google Scholar

Astington, J. W., & Baird, J. A. (Eds.) (2005). Why language matters for theory of mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Astington, J. W., & Hughes, C. (2013). Theory of mind: Self-reflection and social understanding. In Zelazo, P. D. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. Vol. 2. Self and other (pp. 398–424). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Atance, C. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2005). My future self: Young children’s ability to anticipate and explain future states. Cognitive Development, 20(3), 341–361.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bjorklund, D. F., Ellis, B. J., & Rosenberg, J. S. (2007). Evolved probabilistic cognitive mechanisms: An evolutionary approach to gene × environment × development interactions. In Kail, R. V. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behaviour (vol. 35, pp. 1–39). Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar

Baillargeon, R. (2008). Innate ideas revisited: For a principle of persistence in infants’ physical reasoning. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 2–13.Google Scholar

Baillargeon, R., Spelke, E. S., & Wasserman, S. (1985). Object permanence in five-month-old infants. Cognition, 20(3), 191–208.Google Scholar

Barner, D., Thalwitz, D., Wood, J., Yang, S. J., & Carey, S. (2007). On the relation between the acquisition of singular–plural morpho‐syntax and the conceptual distinction between one and more than one. Developmental Science, 10(3), 365–373.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Barnes, J., & Melhuish, E. C. (2017). Amount and timing of group-based childcare from birth and cognitive development at 51 months: A UK study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(3), 360–370.Google Scholar

Bates, E., Carlson-Luden, V., & Bretherton, I. (1980). Perceptual aspects of tool using in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 3, 127–140.CrossRef Google Scholar

Belsky, J., & Most, R. K. (1981). From exploration to play: A cross-sectional study of infant free play behavior. Developmental Psychology, 17(5), 630–639.Google Scholar

Bjorklund, D. F., & Causey, K. B. (2018). Children’s thinking: Cognitive development and individual differences. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.Google Scholar

Bortfeld, H., Morgan, J. L., Golinkoff, R. M., & Rathbun, K. (2005). Mommy and me: Familiar names help launch babies into speech-stream segmentation. Psychological Science, 16(4), 298–304.Google Scholar

Borge, T. C., Aase, H., Brantsæter, A. L., & Biele, G. (2017). The importance of maternal diet quality during pregnancy on cognitive and behavioural outcomes in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 7(9), e016777.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bornstein, M. H. (2014). Human infancy … and the rest of the lifespan. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 121–158.Google Scholar

Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C. S., & Suwalsky, J. T. (2013). Physically developed and exploratory young infants contribute to their own long-term academic achievement. Psychological Science, 24(10), 1906–1917.Google Scholar

Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C. S., & Wolke, D. (2013). Systems and cascades in cognitive development and academic achievement. Child Development, 84(1), 154–162.Google Scholar

Bradshaw, P. (2011) Growing up in Scotland: Changes in child cognitive ability in the pre-school years. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.Google Scholar

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner, R. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar

Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., Anderson, R., Nichols, S. R., & Drummond, J. (2013). Socialization of early prosocial behavior: Parents’ talk about emotions is associated with sharing and helping in toddlers. Infancy, 18(1), 91–119.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Brugha, T. S, McManus, S., Bankart, J., Scott, F., Purdon, S., Smith, J., … Meltzer, H. (2011). Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 459–465.Google Scholar

Bus, A. G., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning to read: A metaanalysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65(1), 1–21.Google Scholar

Camaioni, L., Perucchini, P., Bellagamba, F., & Colonnesi, C. (2004). The role of declarative pointing in developing a theory of mind. Infancy, 5(3), 291–308.CrossRef Google Scholar

Chu, F. W., & Geary, D. C. (2015). Early numerical foundations of young children’s mathematical development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 132, 205–212.Google Scholar

Cirino, P. T. (2011). The interrelationships of mathematical precursors in kindergarten. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(4), 713–733.Google Scholar

Coates, D. L., & Lewis, M. (1984). Early mother–infant interaction and infant cognitive status as predictors of school performance and cognitive behavior in six-year-olds. Child Development, 55, 1219–1230.Google Scholar

Colledge, E., Bishop, D. V., Koeppen-Schomerus, G., Price, T. S., Happé, F. G., Eley, T. C., … & Plomin, R. (2002). The structure of language abilities at 4 years: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 749–757.CrossRef Google Scholar

Coubart, A., Izard, V., Spelke, E. S., Marie, J., & Streri, A. (2014). Dissociation between small and large numerosities in newborn infants. Developmental Science, 17(1), 11–22.Google Scholar

Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. London: BCA.Google Scholar

Cutting, A. L., & Dunn, J. (2002). The cost of understanding other people: Social cognition predicts young children’s sensitivity to criticism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 849–860.Google Scholar

Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta‐analysis. Child Development, 85(5), 1777–1794.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Davis, E. P., Buss, C., Muftuler, T., Head, K., Hasso, A., Wing, D., … & Sandman, C. A. (2011). Children’s brain development benefits from longer gestation. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1.Google Scholar

de Villiers, J. G., & de Villiers, P. A. (2014). The role of language in theory of mind development. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(4), 313–328.Google Scholar

de Vries, R. (2014). Earning by degrees: Differences in the career outcomes of UK graduates. The Sutton Trust. www.suttontrust.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Earnings-by-Degrees-REPORT.pdf Google Scholar

Downey, D. B., Condron, D. J., & Yucel, D. (2015). Number of siblings and social skills revisited among American fifth graders. Journal of Family Issues, 36(2), 273–296.Google Scholar

Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A., Klebanov, , … Japanel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428–1446.Google Scholar

Duncan, G. J., & Murnane, R. J. (Eds.). (2011). Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar

Dunn, J., Brown, J., & Beardsall, L. (1991). Family talk about feeling states and children’s later understanding of others’ emotions. Developmental Psychology, 27(3), 448.Google Scholar

Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Prosocial development. In Damon, W. & Eisenberg, N. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development, 5th ed. (pp. 701–778). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar

Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., & Spelke, E. (2004). Core systems of number. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(7), 307–314.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., Bates, E., Thal, D. J., Pethick, S. J., … & Stiles, J. (1994). Variability in early communicative development. Washington, DC: Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar

Fernald, A. (1995). Human maternal vocalizations to infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolutionary perspective. In Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Toby, J. (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 391–428). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Friso-van den Bos, I., van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., & van Luit, J. E. (2013). Working memory and mathematics in primary school children: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 10, 29–44.Google Scholar

Garcia, E., & Weiss, E. (2017). Education inequalities at the school starting gate: Gaps, trends and strategies to address them. Washington, DC: The Economic Policy Institute.Google Scholar

Geary, D., Hoard, M,, Byrd-Craven, J., & DeSoto, M. (2004). Strategy choices in simple and complex addition: Contributions of working memory and counting knowledge for children with mathematical disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 121–151.Google Scholar

Gelman, S. A. (2003). The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Gentner, D., & Hoyos, C. (2017). Analogy and abstraction. Topics in Cognitive Science, 9(3), 672–693.Google Scholar

George, A., Stokes, L., & Wilkinson, D. (2012). Does early education influence key stage 1 attainment? Evidence for England from the Millennium Cohort Study. National Institute Economic Review, 222(1), R67–R80.Google Scholar

Georgieff, M. K. (2007). Nutrition and the developing brain: Nutrient priorities and measurement. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(2), 614S–620S.Google Scholar

Glover, V. (2015). Prenatal stress and its effects on the fetus and the child: possible underlying biological mechanisms. In Antonelli, M. C. (Ed.), Perinatal programming of neurodevelopment (pp. 269–283). New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar

Goisis, A. (2015). How are children of older mothers doing? Evidence from the United Kingdom. Biodemography and Social Biology, 61(3), 231–251.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Golinkoff, R. M., Hoff, E., Rowe, M. L., Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2019). Language matters: Denying the existence of the 30‐million‐word gap has serious consequences. Child Development, 90(3), 985–992.Google Scholar

Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Bryant, P. (1997). Words, thoughts, and theories (vol. 1). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Greening, J. (2017). Unlocking talent, fulfilling potential: A plan for improving social mobility through education. London: UK Department for Education. www.gov.uk/government/publications/improving-social-mobility-through-education Google Scholar

Gunderson, E. A., & Levine, S. C. (2011). Some types of parent number-talk count more than others: Relations between parents’ input and children’s cardinal‐number knowledge. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1021–1032.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Haith, M. M. (1966). The response of the human newborn to visual movement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3(3), 235–243.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hansen, K., & Jones, E. M. (2010). Age 5 cognitive development in England. Child Indicators Research, 3(1), 105–126.Google Scholar

Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.Google Scholar

Heckman, J. J., & Karapakula, G. (2019). Intergenerational and intragenerational externalities of the Perry Preschool Project (working paper 25889). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar

Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74(5), 1368–1378.Google Scholar

Hoff, E. (2013a). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4.Google Scholar

Hoff, E. (2013b). Language development. Belmont, CA: Cengage LearningGoogle Scholar

Horta, B. L., Loret de Mola, C., & Victora, C. G. (2015). Breastfeeding and intelligence: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Acta Paediatrica, 104(S467), 14–19.Google Scholar

Hughes, C., Ensor, R., & Marks, A. (2011). Individual differences in false belief understanding are stable from 3 to 6 years of age and predict children’s mental-state talk with school friends. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(1), 96–112.Google Scholar

Huntsinger, C. S., Jose, P. E., & Luo, Z. (2016). Parental facilitation of early mathematics and reading skills and knowledge through encouragement of home-based activities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 1–15.Google Scholar

Institut de la statistique du Québec. (2002). Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD 1998–2002). Cognitive development in children aged 17 to 29 months. Quebec: Institut de la statistique du Québec.Google Scholar

Izard, V., Sann, C., Spelke, E. S., & Streri, A. (2009). Newborn infants perceive abstract numbers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(25), 10382–10385.Google Scholar

Johnson, M. H. (2011). Interactive specialization: A domain-general framework for human functional brain development?. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(1), 7–21.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Johnson, M. H., Dziurawiec, S., Ellis, H., & Morton, J. (1991). Newborns’ preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1), 1–19.Google Scholar

Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., Olah, L. N., & Locuniak, M. N. (2006). Number sense growth in kindergarten: A longitudinal investigation of children at risk for mathematics difficulties. Child Development, 77(1), 153–175.Google Scholar

Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2006). The tortuous route from genes to behavior: A neuroconstructivist approach. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 6(1), 9–17.Google Scholar

Kiernan, K. E., & Huerta, M. C. (2008). Economic deprivation, maternal depression, parenting and children’s cognitive and emotional development in early childhood. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(4), 783–806.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kiernan, K. E., & Mensah, F. K. (2009). Poverty, maternal depression, family status and children’s cognitive and behavioural development in early childhood: A longitudinal study. Journal of Social Policy, 38(4), 569–588.Google Scholar

Lacroix, V., Pomerleau, A., & Malcuit, G. (2002). Properties of adult and adolescent mothers’ speech, children’s verbal performance and cognitive development in different socioeconomic groups: A longitudinal study. First Language, 22(2), 173–196.Google Scholar

Law, J., Charlton, J., & Asmussen, K. (2017). Language as a child wellbeing indicator. London: Early Intervention Foundation. www.eif.org.uk/report/language-as-a-child-wellbeing-indicator Google Scholar

Lee, K. (2013). Little liars: Development of verbal deception in children. Child Development Perspectives, 7(2), 91–96.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

LeFevre, J. A., Fast, L., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith‐Chant, B. L., Bisanz, J., Kamawar, D., & Penner‐Wilger, M. (2010). Pathways to mathematics: Longitudinal predictors of performance. Child Development, 81(6), 1753–1767.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

LeFevre, J. A., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith-Chant, B. L., Fast, L., Kamawar, D., & Bisanz, J. (2009). Home numeracy experiences and children’s math performance in the early school years. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 41(2), 55–66.Google Scholar

Leslie, A. M., & Kaldy, Z. (2001). Indexing individual objects in infant working memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 78(1), 61–74.Google Scholar

Levine, S. C., Suriyakham, L. W., Rowe, M. L., Huttenlocher, J., & Gunderson, E. A. (2010). What counts in the development of young children’s number knowledge? Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1309.Google Scholar

Luijuk, M. P. C. M., Linting, M. Henrichs, J., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2015). Hours in non-parental childcare are related to language development in a longitudinal cohort study: Childcare and language development. Childcare Health and Development, 41(6), 1188–1198.Google Scholar

Magnuson, K. A., Meyers, M. K., Ruhm, C. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2004). Inequality in preschool education and school readiness. American Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 115–157.Google Scholar

Magnuson, K. A., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Huston, A. C. (2009). Increases in maternal education and young children’s language skills. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 55(3), 319–350.Google Scholar

Melhuish, E. C. (2011). Preschool matters. Science, 333(6040), 299–300.Google Scholar

Mamluk, L., Edwards, H. B., Savović, J., Leach, V., Jones, T., Moore, T. H., … & Smith, G. D. (2017). Low alcohol consumption and pregnancy and childhood outcomes: Time to change guidelines indicating apparently ‘safe’ levels of alcohol during pregnancy? A systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ Open, 7(7), e015410.Google Scholar

Marulis, L. M., & Neuman, S. B. (2010). The effects of vocabulary intervention on young children’s word learning: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80(3), 300–335.Google Scholar

Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 491–495.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

National Research Council. (2015). Transforming the workforce for children birth through age 8: A unifying foundation. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar

McKean, C., Reilly, S., Bavin, E., Bretherton, L., Cini, E., Conway, L., … & Mensah, F. (2017). Language outcomes at 7 years: Early predictors and co-occurring difficulties. Pediatrics, 139(3), e20161684.Google Scholar

Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Clark‐Carter, D., Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2003). Pathways to understanding mind: Construct validity and predictive validity of maternal mind‐mindedness. Child Development, 74(4), 1194–1211.Google Scholar

Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2002). Maternal mind-mindedness and attachment security as predictors of theory of mind understanding. Child Development, 73(6), 1715–1726.Google Scholar

Melhuish, E. (2010) Growing up in Scotland: Impact of the home learning environment on child cognitive development. Edinburgh: Scottish GovernmentGoogle Scholar

Meltzoff, A. N. (2007). The ‘like me’ framework for recognizing and becoming an intentional agent. Acta Psychologica, 124(1), 26–43.Google Scholar

Mix, K. S. (2009). How Spencer made number: First uses of the number words. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(4), 427–444.Google Scholar

Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., De Jong, M. T., & Smeets, D. J. (2008). Added value of dialogic parent–child book readings: A meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7–26.Google Scholar

Moore, J. K., & Linthicum, F. H. Jr. (2007). The human auditory system: A timeline of development. International Journal of Audiology, 46(9), 460–478.Google Scholar

Morales, M., Mundy, P., Delgado, C. E., Yale, M., Messinger, D., Neal, R., & Schwartz, H. K. (2000). Responding to joint attention across the 6- through 24-month age period and early language acquisition. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 283–298.Google Scholar

Morris, S. P., Melhuish, E., & Gardiner, J. (2017). Study of early education and development (SEED): Impact study on early education use and child outcomes up to age three. London: UK Department for Education.Google Scholar

Mundy, P., Block, J., Delgado, C., Pomares, Y., Van Hecke, A. V., & Parlade, M. V. (2007). Individual differences and the development of joint attention in infancy. Child Development, 78(3), 938–954.Google Scholar

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Childcare Research Network. (2003). Social functioning in first grade: Associations with earlier home and childcare predictors and with current classroom experiences. Child Development, 74, 1639–1662.Google Scholar

Nelson, K. (1973). Structure and strategy in learning to talk. Chicago, IL: Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar

Newton, E. K., Thompson, R. A., & Goodman, M. (2016). Individual differences in toddlers’ prosociality: Experiences in early relationships explain variability in prosocial behavior. Child Development, 87(6), 1715–1726.Google Scholar

Nguyen, T., Watts, T. W., Duncan, G. J., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J. S., Wolfe, C., & Spitler, M. E. (2016). Which preschool mathematics competencies are most predictive of fifth grade achievement? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 550–560.Google Scholar

Nilsson, K. K., & de López, K. J. (2016). Theory of mind in children with specific language impairment: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Child Development, 87(1), 143–153.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Oxford, M., & Spieker, S. (2006). Preschool language development among children of adolescent mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(2), 165–182.Google Scholar

Pauen, S., & Bechtel-Kuehne, S. (2016). How toddlers acquire and transfer tool knowledge: Developmental changes and the role of executive functions. Child Development, 87, 1233–1249.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pears, K. C., & Moses, L. J. (2003). Demographics, parenting, and theory of mind in preschool children. Social Development, 12(1), 1–20.Google Scholar

Pellegrini, A. (2013). Play. In Masten, A. S. & Zelazo, P. D. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology, vol. 2: Self and other (pp. 276–299). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Pelli, D. G., & Tillman, K. A. (2008). The uncrowded window of object recognition. Nature Neuroscience, 11(10), 1129–1135.Google Scholar

Perner, J., Ruffman, T., & Leekam, S. R. (1994). Theory of mind is contagious: You catch it from your sibs. Child Development, 65(4), 1228–1238.Google Scholar

Perszyk, D. R., & Waxman, S. R. (2018). Linking language and cognition in infancy. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 239–250.Google Scholar

Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Knopik, V. S., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2013). Behavioral genetics (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.Google Scholar

Prior, M. Bavin, E., and Ong, B. (2011). Predictors of school readiness in five‐ to six‐year‐old children from an Australian longitudinal community sample. Educational Psychology, 31, 3–16.Google Scholar

Puma, M., Bell, S., Cook, R., Heid, C., Shapiro, G., Broene, P., … & Ciarico, J. (2010). Head Start impact study. Final report. Washington, DC: Administration for Children & Families.Google Scholar

Purpura, D. J., & Reid, E. E. (2016). Mathematics and language: Individual and group differences in mathematical language skills in young children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 259–268.CrossRef Google Scholar

Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., & Ganley, C. M. (2017). Foundations of mathematics and literacy: The role of executive functioning components. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 153, 15–34.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Quigley, M. A., Hockley, C., Carson, C., Kelly, Y., Renfrew, M. J., & Sacker, A. (2012). Breastfeeding is associated with improved child cognitive development: A population-based cohort study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 160(1), 25–32.Google Scholar

Quinn, P. C. (2011). Born to categorize. In. Goswami, U. (Ed.), The Wiley-Black handbook of cognitive development, 2nd ed. (pp. 129–152), Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar

Raikes, H., Alexander Pan, B., Luze, G., Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., Brooks‐Gunn, J., Constantine, J., … & Rodriguez, E. T. (2006). Mother–child bookreading in low‐income families: Correlates and outcomes during the first three years of life. Child Development, 77(4), 924–953.Google Scholar

Ramírez‐Esparza, N., García‐Sierra, A., & Kuhl, P. K. (2014). Look who’s talking: Speech style and social context in language input to infants are linked to concurrent and future speech development. Developmental Science, 17(6), 880–891.Google Scholar

Reznick, J. S., & Goldfield, B. A. (1992). Rapid change in lexical development in comprehension and production. Developmental Psychology, 28(3), 406–413.Google Scholar

Rittle‐Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., Hofer, K. G., & Farran, D. C. (2017). Early math trajectories: Low‐income children’s mathematics knowledge from ages 4 to 11. Child Development, 88(5), 1727–1742.Google Scholar

Rodriguez, E. T., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2011). Trajectories of the home learning environment across the first 5 years: Associations with children’s vocabulary and literacy skills at prekindergarten. Child Development, 82, 1058–1075.Google Scholar

Rowe, M. L. (2012). A longitudinal investigation of the role of quantity and quality of child‐directed speech in vocabulary development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762–1774.Google Scholar

Ruddy, M. G., & Bornstein, M. H. (1982). Cognitive correlates of infant attention and maternal stimulation over the first year of life. Child Development, 53, 183–188.Google Scholar

Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Kreppner, J., Kumsta, R., … & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: Effects of institutional deprivation. Chicago, IL: Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar

Saxton, M. (2010). Child language: Acquisition and development. London: SAGE.Google Scholar

Scholl, B. J. (2001). Objects and attention: The state of the art. Cognition, 80(1), 1–46.Google Scholar

Spelke, E. S. (2017). Core knowledge, language, and number. Language Learning and Development, 13(2), 147–170.Google Scholar

Siegler, R. S., & Lortie‐Forgues, H. (2014). Integrative theory of numerical development. Child Development Perspectives, 8(3), 144–150.Google Scholar

Simms, V., Cragg, L., Gilmore, C., Marlow, N., & Johnson, S. (2013). Mathematics difficulties in children born very preterm: Current research and future directions. Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 98(5), F457–F463.Google Scholar

Skwarchuk, S. L., Sowinski, C., & LeFevre, J. A. (2014). Formal and informal home learning activities in relation to children’s early numeracy and literacy skills: The development of a home numeracy model. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 121, 63–84.Google Scholar

Snow, C. (1983). Literacy and language: Relationships during the preschool years. Harvard Educational Review, 53(2), 165–189.Google Scholar

Snowling, M. J., Bishop, D. V. M., Stothard, S. E., Chipchase, B., & Kaplan, C. (2006). Psychosocial outcomes at 15 years of children with a preschool history of speech-language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(8), 759–765.Google Scholar

Soska, K. C., Adolph, K. E., & Johnson, S. P. (2010). Systems in development: Motor skill acquisition facilitates three dimensional object completion. Developmental Psychology, 46(1), 129.Google Scholar

Spelke, E. S., & Kinzler, K. D. (2007). Core knowledge. Developmental Science, 10(1), 89–96.Google Scholar

Stene-Larsen, K., Brandlistuen, R. E., Lang, A. M., Landolt, M. A., Latal, B., & Vollrath, M. E. (2014). Communication impairments in early term and late preterm children: A prospective cohort study following children to age 36 months. Journal of Pediatrics, 165, 6, 1123–1128.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Strickland, B., Fisher, M., Keil, F., & Knobe, J. (2014). Syntax and intentionality: An automatic link between language and theory-of-mind. Cognition, 133(1), 249–261.Google Scholar

Stromswold, K. (2001). The heritability of language: A review and metaanalysis of twin, adoption, and linkage studies. Language, 77(4), 647–723.Google Scholar

Suggate, S., Stoeger, H., & Fischer, U. (2017). Finger-based numerical skills link fine motor skills to numerical development in preschoolers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 124(6), 1085–1106.Google Scholar

Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (Eds.). (2010). Early childhood matters: Evidence from the effective pre-school and primary education project. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Bornstein, M. H. (1993). Antecedents of exploratory competence at one year. Infant Behavior and Development, 16(4), 423–439.Google Scholar

Taylor, C. M., Golding, J., Hibbeln, J., & Emond, A. M. (2013). Environmental factors predicting blood lead levels in pregnant women in the UK: The ALSPAC study. PLOS ONE, 8(9), e72371.Google Scholar

Teager, W., & McBride, T. (2018). An initial assessment of the 2-year-old free childcare entitlement: Drivers of take-up and impact on early years outcomes. London: Early Intervention Foundation. www.eif.org.uk/report/an-initial-assessment-of-the-2-year-old-free-childcare-entitlement Google Scholar

Thelen, E. (1991). Motor aspects of emergent speech: A dynamic approach. In Krasnegor, N. A., Rumbaugh, D. M., Schiefelbusch, R. L., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (Eds.), Biological and behavioral determinants of language development (pp. 339–362). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Thibaut, J. P., French, R., & Vezneva, M. (2010). The development of analogy making in children: Cognitive load and executive functions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106(1), 1–19.Google Scholar

Toll, S. W. M., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2014). Explaining numeracy development in weak performing kindergartners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 124, 97–111.Google Scholar

Tomasello, M. (2009). Constructing a language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10(1), 121–125.Google Scholar

Tomasello, M., & Farrar, M. J. (1986). Joint attention and early language. Child Development, 57, 1454–1463.Google Scholar

Umiker-Sebeok, D. J. (1979). Preschool children’s intraconversational narratives. Journal of Child Language, 6(1), 91–109.Google Scholar

Victora, C. G., Bahl, R., Barros, A. J., França, G. V., Horton, S., Krasevec, J., … & Rollins, N. C. (2016). Breastfeeding in the 21st century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. The Lancet, 387(10017), 475–490.Google Scholar

Violato, M., Petrou, S., Gray, R., & Redshaw, M. (2011). Family income and child cognitive and behavioural development in the United Kingdom: Does money matter? Health Economics, 20(10), 1201–1225.Google Scholar

Waldfogel, J., & Washbrook, E. (2010). Low income and early cognitive development in the UK. London: Sutton Trust.Google Scholar

Weikum, W. M., Oberlander, T. F., Hensch, T. K., & Werker, J. F. (2012). Prenatal exposure to antidepressants and depressed maternal mood alter trajectory of infant speech perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(S2), 17221–17227.Google Scholar

Weisleder, A., & Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to children matters: Early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143–2152.Google Scholar

Wellman, H. M. (2014). Making minds: How theory of mind develops. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory‐of‐mind tasks. Child Development, 75(2), 523–541.Google Scholar

Williamson, G. (2014). Mean length of utterance. www.sltinfo.com/mean-length-of-utterance/Google Scholar

Wynn, K. (1990). Children’s understanding of counting. Cognition, 36, 155–193.Google Scholar

Wynn, K. (1992). Children’s acquisition of the number words and the counting system. Cognitive Psychology, 24(2), 220–251.Google Scholar

Wynn, K. (1995). Origins of numerical knowledge. Mathematical Cognition, 1, 35–60.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.