Introduction

The chapters in Part 2 of this book explore a variety of cognitive strategies for the development of specific language skills and in Part 3, the focus is on strategies for learner self-management. Each chapter has concentrated on an individual skill or strategic approach. However, there has been a lively debate in the research community (e.g. McDonough, 1995, 1999, 2005; O'Malley & Chamot, 1995; Oxford & Cohen, 1992) about the relative merits of 'learner training' and whether separate instruction about strategies is an effective approach, or whether it is more effective to integrate strategy instruction into language learning materials and if so, how it can best be achieved. This chapter examines the arguments surrounding strategy instruction and the issues involved in integrating such instruction in materials for independent and distance learning, before looking at some examples of integration in practice.

Strategy Instruction: Background to the Debate

Language learning researchers became interested in the notion of learning strategies from the 1970s when a number of studies explored the behaviour that made some learners more successful than others in second language acquisition (e.g. Naiman et al., 1978; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975). Early results indicated that 'the good language learner' did not simply have aptitude and motivation, but drew on these characteristics to devise and apply their own strategies, actively engaging in the learning process. A substantial amount of further research followed to identify and categorise the strategies which assist effective language learning. The case for raising awareness of language learning strategies was strengthened by researchers who examined how unsuccessful learners approach their studies. Nyikos (1987, in Oxford & Cohen, 1992: 2) observed that less successful language learners sometimes have no idea what strategies they use or rely on a few non-communicative techniques such as translation, rote memorisation and repetition. It was argued that, if application of strategies distinguished the successful learner, strategy instruction should become part of language learning programmes.