Book contents
- Motivational Systems
- Motivational Systems
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Boxes
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1Introduction
- 2Models of Motivation
- 3Needs, Drives, and Arousal
- 4Incentive Motivation
- 5Levels of Control
- 6Wanting and Liking
- 7Regulation and Control: From Homeostasis to Emotion Modulation
- 8Emotions, Moods, and Affect – Their Link to Motivation
- 9Feeding Motivation
- 10The Motivation to Drink Water and Ingest Salts
- 11Sexual Motivation
- 12Exploratory Motivation
- 13Fear, Avoidance, and Security
- 14Aggression
- 15Pain
- 16Social Motivation: Belonging, Affiliation, and Attachment
- 17Drugs and Addiction
- 18Addictions to Things Other than Drugs
- 19Summary and Integration
- Glossary
- References
- Index
2 - Models of Motivation
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 June 2026
Book contents
- Motivational Systems
- Motivational Systems
- Copyright page
- Dedication
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Boxes
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1Introduction
- 2Models of Motivation
- 3Needs, Drives, and Arousal
- 4Incentive Motivation
- 5Levels of Control
- 6Wanting and Liking
- 7Regulation and Control: From Homeostasis to Emotion Modulation
- 8Emotions, Moods, and Affect – Their Link to Motivation
- 9Feeding Motivation
- 10The Motivation to Drink Water and Ingest Salts
- 11Sexual Motivation
- 12Exploratory Motivation
- 13Fear, Avoidance, and Security
- 14Aggression
- 15Pain
- 16Social Motivation: Belonging, Affiliation, and Attachment
- 17Drugs and Addiction
- 18Addictions to Things Other than Drugs
- 19Summary and Integration
- Glossary
- References
- Index
Summary
Chapter 2 describes several of the best-known models of motivation. It reveals an evolution over time in some of these models from simple to more complex. It starts by describing the homeostatic model of motivation and set-points. It argues that, under certain limited conditions, this fits reality. However, where it breaks down is in explaining drinking and feeding in the absence of any deficit. An incentive-based model can account for this feature of behaviour as well as the homeostatic aspect. The chapter describes the hydraulic model of motivation proposed by Konrad Lorenz and shows where it fits (e.g. an intrinsic motivation to act) and does not fit the evidence. The model of Lorenz is linked in the chapter to the issue of what is reinforcing. In addition to such things as the acquisition of food or water, behaviour itself has a certain reinforcement potential. The final section of Chapter 2 evaluates the opponent-process theory of motivation.
Keywords
Information
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Motivational SystemsA Biopsychological Introduction, pp. 14 - 27Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2026
Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.2 AAA
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
The HTML of this chapter complies with version 2.2 of the
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG), offering more comprehensive accessibility measures for a broad range
of users and attains the highest
(AAA)
level of WCAG compliance, optimising the user experience by meeting the most extensive
accessibility guidelines.
Content Navigation
Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.
Reading Order & Textual Equivalents
Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.
Visualised data also available as non-graphical data
You can access graphs or charts in a text or tabular format, so you are not excluded if you cannot process visual displays.
You can access graphs or charts in a text or tabular format, so you are not excluded if you cannot process visual displays.
Visual Accessibility
Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Use of high contrast between text and background colour
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.