Premorbid structural abnormalities in schizophrenia

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511735103.021

19 - Premorbid structural abnormalities in schizophrenia

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 August 2010

Stephen M. Lawrie

Edited by

Matcheri S. Keshavan,

James L. Kennedy and

Robin M. Murray

Show author details

Stephen M. Lawrie: Affiliation:
Royal Edinburgh Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
Matcheri S. Keshavan: Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
James L. Kennedy: Affiliation:
Clarke Institute of Psychiatry, Toronto
Robin M. Murray: Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, London

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Hundreds of structural brain imaging studies have demonstrated that there is a neuroanatomy of schizophrenia. This chapter reviews evidences, for premorbid abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and related populations. Computed tomography (CT) demonstrated ventricular enlargement and a generalized loss of brain tissue, which may have conflated separate disease processes. Magnetic resonance imaging, which now requires a structural prefix (sMRI), has replicated these findings and convincingly shown additional volume deficits in the prefrontal and temporal lobes, as well as further decrements in the medial and superior temporal lobe. The Edinburgh High Risk Study examines subjects with two close relatives with schizophrenia. Researchers in the Melbourne High Risk Study have adopted a different but complementary approach. Evidence shows that obstetric complications (OCs) are related to small hippocampi in schizophrenia, possibly through gene-environment interaction. Evidence related to the hypothermic treatment of hypoxic brains is proved in reducing adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Keywords

computed tomography Edinburgh High Risk Study hippocampi neurodevelopment premorbid structural abnormalities Melbourne High Risk Study magnetic resonance imaging imaging specific gene effects schizophrenia ventricles

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Neurodevelopment and Schizophrenia , pp. 347 - 372
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511735103.021 [Opens in a new window]
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Alvir, J. M. J., Woerner, M. G., Gunduz, H., Degreef, G., Lieberman, J. A. (1999). Obstretric complications predict treatment response in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychol Med 29: 621–627CrossRef Google Scholar

Ananth, H., Popescu, I., Critchley, H. D.et al. (2002). Cortical and subcortical gray matter abnormalities in schizophrenia determined through structural magnetic resonance imaging with optimized volumetric voxel-based morphometry. Am J Psychiatry 159: 1497–1505CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Baare, W. F., Oel, C. J., Hulshoff Pol, H. E.et al. (2001). Volumes of brain structures in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 33–40CrossRef Google Scholar

Bartley, A. J., Jones, D. W., Torrey, E. F., Zigun, J. R., Weinberger, D. R. (1993). Sylvian fissure asymmetries in monozygotic twins: a test of laterality in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 34: 853–863CrossRef Google Scholar

Bridle, N., Pantelis, C., Wood, S. J.et al. (2002). Thalamic and caudate volumes in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 36: 347–354CrossRef Google Scholar

Buchsbaum, M. S., Yang, S., Hazlett, E.et al. (1997). Ventricular volume and asymmetry in schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia assessed with magnetic resonance imaging. Schizophr Res 27: 45–53CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cannon, M., Jones, P. (1996). Schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61: 604–613CrossRef Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Mednick, S. A., Parnas, J. (1989). Genetic and perinatal determinants of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46: 883–889CrossRef Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Mednick, S. A., Parnas, J.et al. (1993). Developmental brain abnormalities in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers. I. Contributions of genetic and perinatal factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 551–564CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cannon, T. D., Mednick, S. A., Parnas, J.et al. (1994). Developmental brain abnormalities in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers. II. Structural brain characteristics of schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51: 955–962CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cannon, T. D., Kaprio, J., Lönnqvist, J., Huttunen, M., Koskenvuo, M. (1998a). The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 67–74CrossRef Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Erp, T. G., Huttunen, M.et al. (1998b). Regional gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid distributions in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 1084–1091CrossRef Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Thompson, P. M., Erp, T. G.et al. (2002a). Cortex mapping reveals regionally specific patterns of genetic and disease-specific gray-matter deficits in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 3228–3233CrossRef Google Scholar

Cannon, T. D., Erp, T. G., Rosso, I. M.et al. (2002b). Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 35–41CrossRef Google Scholar

Chemerinski, E., Nopoulos, P. C., Crespo-Facorro, B., Andreasen, N. C., Magnotta, V. (2002). Morphology of the ventral frontal cortex in schizophrenia: relationship with social dysfunction. Biol Psychiatry 52: 1–8CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Copolov, D., Velakoulis, D., McGorry, P.et al. (2000). Neurobiological findings in early phase schizophrenia. Brain Res Rev 31: 157–165CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dauphinais, I. D., DeLisi, L. E., Crow, T. J.et al. (1990). Reduction in temporal lobe size in siblings with schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Res 35: 137–147CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

DeLisi, L. E., Goldin, L. R., Hamovit, J. R.et al. (1986). A family study of the association of increased ventricular size with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43: 148–153CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

DeLisi, L. E., Dauphinais, I. D., Gershon, E. S. (1988). Perinatal complications and reduced size of brain limbic structures in familial schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 14: 185–191CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

DeQuardo, J. R., Goldman, M., Tandon, R. (1996). VBR in schizophrenia: relationship to family history of psychosis and season of birth. Schizophr Res 20: 275–285CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dickey, C. C., McCarley, R. W., Voglmaier, M. M.et al. (1999). Schizotypal personality disorder and MRI abnormalities of temporal lobe gray matter. Biol Psychiatry 45: 1393–1402CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dickey, C. C., Shenton, M. E., Hirayasu, Y.et al. (2000). Large CSF volume not attributable to ventricular volume in schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 157: 48–54CrossRef Google Scholar

Downhill, J. E., Buchsbaum, M. S., Hazlett, E. A.et al. (2001). Temporal lobe volume determined by magnetic resonance imaging in schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 48: 187–199CrossRef Google Scholar

Erel, O., Cannon, T. D., Hollister, J. M., Mednick, S. A., Parnas, J. (1991). Ventricular enlargement and premorbid deficits in school-occupational attainment in a high risk sample. Schizophr Res 4: 49–52CrossRef Google Scholar

Falkai, P., Honer, W. G., Alfter, D.et al. (2002). The temporal lobe in schizophrenia from uni- and multiply affected families. Neurosci Lett 325: 25–28CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fannon, D., Tennakoon, L., Sumich, A.et al. (2000). Third ventricle enlargement and developmental delay in first-episode psychosis: preliminary findings. Br J Psychiatry 177: 354–359CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fernandez, T., Yan, W. L., Hamburger, S.et al. (1999). Apolipoprotine E alleles in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet 88: 211–2133.0.CO;2-M>CrossRef Google Scholar

Frangou, S., Sharma, T., Sigmudsson, T.et al. (1997). The Maudsley Family Study 4. Normal planum temporale asymmetry in familial schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 170: 328–333CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gur, R. E., Turetsky, B. I., Bilker, W. B., Gur, R. C. (1999). Reduced gray matter volume in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56: 905–911CrossRef Google Scholar

Gur, R. E., Turetsky, B. I., Cowell, P. E.et al. (2000). Temporolimbic volume reductions in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57: 769–775CrossRef Google Scholar

Harris, J. G., Young, D. A., Rojas, D. C.et al. (2002). Increased hippocampal volume in schizophrenics' parents with ancestral history of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 55: 11–17CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hata, T., Kunugi, H., Nanko, S., Fukuda, R., Kaminaga, T. (2002). Possible effect of the APOE e4 allele on the hippocampal volume and asymmetry in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet Neuropsychiatr Genet 114: 641–642CrossRef Google Scholar

Honer, W. G., Bassett, A. S., Squires-Wheeler, E.et al. (1995). The temporal lobes, reversed asymmetry and the genetics of schizophrenia. Neuroreport 7: 221–224CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hulshoff Pol, H. E., Hoek, H. W., Susser, E.et al. (2000). Prenatal exposure to famine and brain morphology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 157: 1170–1172CrossRef Google Scholar

Job, D. E., Whalley, H. C., McConnell, S.et al. (2002). Structural gray matter differences between first-episode schizophrenics and normal controls on voxel-based morphometry. Neuroimage 17: 880–889CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Job, D. E., Whalley, H. C., Glabus, M., Johnstone, E. C., Lawrie, S. M. (2003). Voxel-based morphometry of grey matter reductions in subjects at high risk of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 64: 1–13CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G., Bydder, G. M.et al. (1989). The spectrum of structural brain changes in schizophrenia: age of onset as a predictor of cognitive and clinical impairments and their cerebral correlates. Psychol Med 19: 91–103CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Johnstone, E. C., Cosway, R., Lawrie, S. M. (2002). Distinguishing characteristics of subjects with good and poor early outcome in the Edinburgh High Risk Study. Br J Psychiatry 181: S26–S29CrossRef Google Scholar

Jones, P. B., Harvey, I., Lewis, S. W.et al. (1994). Cerebral ventricle dimensions as risk factors for schizophrenia and affective psychosis: an epidemiological approach to analysis. Psychol Med 24: 995–1011CrossRef Google Scholar

Keshavan, M. S., Montrose, D. M., Pierri, J. N.et al. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in offspring at risk for schizophrenia: preliminary studies. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 21: 1285–1295CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Keshavan, M. S., Dick, E., Mankowski, I.et al. (2002). Decreased left amygddala and hippocampal volumes in young offspring at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 58: 173–183CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Konick, L. C., Friedman, L. (2001). Meta-analysis of thalamic size in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 49: 28–38CrossRef Google Scholar

Kunugi, H., Hattori, M., Nanko, S.et al. (1999). Dinucleotide repeat polymorphism in the neurotrophin-3 gene and hippocampal volume in psychoses. Schizophr Res 37: 271–273CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lawrie, S. M., Abukmeil, S. S. (1998). Brain abnormality in schizophrenia. A systematic and quantitative review of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br J Psychiatry 172: 110–120CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lawrie, S. M., Whalley, H., Kestelman, J. N.et al. (1999). Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Lancet 353: 30–33CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lawrie, S. M., Adams, C. E., Thornley, B., Joy, C. (2000). Comprehensiveness of systematic review: update. Br J Psychiatry 176: 396–401CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lawrie, S. M., Whalley, H. C., Abukmeil, S. S.et al. (2001). Brain structure, genetic liability and psychotic symptoms in subjects at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 49: 811–823CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lawrie, S. M., Whalley, H. C., Abukmeil, S. S.et al. (2002). Temporal lobe volume changes in subjects at high risk of schizophrenia with psychotic symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 181: 138–143CrossRef Google Scholar

Levitt, J. J., McCarley, R. W., Dickey, C. C.et al. (2002). MRI study of caudate nucleus volume and its cognitive correlates in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159: 1190–1197CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lewis, S. W. (1990). Computerised tomography in schizophrenia 15 years on. Br J Psychiatry 157: 16–24Google Scholar

Lim, K. O., Beal, D. M., Harvey, R. L. Jr.et al. (1995). Brain dysmorphology in adults with congenital rubella plus schizophrenia-like symptoms. Biol Psychiatry 37: 764–776CrossRef Google Scholar

McDonald, C., Grech, A., Toulopoulou, T.et al. (2002). Brain volumes in familial and non-familial schizophrenic probands and their unaffected relatives. Am J Med Genet (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 114: 616–625CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McGuffin, P., Asherson, P., Owen, M., Farmer, A. (1994). The strength of the genetic effect. Is there room for an environmental influence in the aetiology of schizophrenia?Br J Psychiatry 164: 593–599CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McNeil, T. F., Cantor-Graae, E., Weinberger, D. R. (2000). Relationship of obstetric complications and differences in size of brain structures in monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 157: 203–212CrossRef Google Scholar

Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Japee, S., Verchinski, B.et al. (2001). Structural MRI abnormalities in schizophrenic patients and their unaffected siblings: voxel-based morphometry. Neuroimage 13: S217Google Scholar

Mourot, A., d'Amato, T., Rochet, T.et al. (1997). Cerebral investigation of healthy siblings of schizophrenics. Eur Psychiatry 12: 273–278CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Narr, K. L., Erp, T. G., Cannon, T. D.et al. (2002). A twin study of genetic contributions to hippocampal morphology in schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 11: 83–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Nelson, M. D., Saykin, A. J., Flashman, L. A., Riordan, H. J. (1998). Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analytic study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 433–440CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Noga, J. T., Bartley, A. J., Jones, D. W., Torrey, E. F., Weinberger, D. R. (1996). Cortical gyral anatomy and gross brain dimensions in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 22: 27–40CrossRef Google Scholar

O'Driscoll, G. A., Florencio, P. S., Gagnon, D.et al. (2001). Amygdala–hippocampal volume and verbal memory in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 107: 75–85CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Owens, D. G., Johnstone, E. C., Crow, T. J.et al. (1985). Lateral ventricular size in schizophrenia: relationship to the disease process and its clinical manifestations. Psychol Med 15: 27–41CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Paillere-Martinot, M., Caclin, A., Artiges, E.et al. (2001). Cerebral gray and white matter reductions and clinical correlates in patients with early onset schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 50: 19–26CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pantelis, C., Velakoulis, D., Suckling, J.et al. (2000). Left medial temporal volume reduction occurs during the transition from high-risk to first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 41: 35CrossRef Google Scholar

Pantelis, C., Velakoulis, D., McGorry, P. D.et al. (2003). Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet 361: 281–288CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Phillips, L. J., Velakoulis, D., Pantelis, C.et al. (2002). Non-reduction in hippocampal volume is associated with higher risk of psychosis. Schizophr Res 58: 145–158CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Raz, S., Raz, N. (1990). Structural brain abnormalities in the major psychoses: a quantitative review of the evidence from computerized imaging. Psychol Bull 108: 93–108CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rees, S., Breen, S., Loeliger, M., McCrabb, G., Harding, R. (1999). Hypoxemia near mid-gestation has long-term effects on fetal brain development. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 58: 932–945CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Reveley, A. M., Reveley, M. A., Clifford, C. A., Murray, R. M. (1982). Cerebral ventricular size in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Lancet ⅰ: 540–541CrossRef Google Scholar

Reveley, A. M., Reveley, M. A., Murray, R. M. (1984). Cerebral ventricular enlargement in non-genetic schizophrenia: a controlled twin study. Br J Psychiatry 144: 89–93CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Roy, M. A., Flaum, M. A., Arndt, S. V., Crowe, R. R., Andreasen, N. C. (1994). Magnetic resonance imaging in familial versus sporadic cases of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 54: 25–36CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sacchetti, E., Calzeroni, A., Vita, A.et al. (1992). The brain damage hypothesis of the seasonality of births in schizophrenia and major affective disorders: evidence from computerised tomography. Br J Psychiatry 160: 390–397CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sanderson, T. L., Doody, G. A., Best, J., Owens, D. G. C., Johnstone, E. C. (2001). Correlations between clinical and historical variables and cerebral structural variables in people with mild intellectual disability and schizophrenia. J Intellect Disabil Res 45: 89–98CrossRef Google Scholar

Sapolsky, R. M. (2000). Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57: 925–935CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Schreiber, H., Baur-Seack, K., Kornhuber, H. H.et al. (1999). Brain morphology in adolescents at genetic risk for schizophrenia assessed by qualitative and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging. Schizophr Res 40: 81–84CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Schulsinger, F., Parnas, J., Petersen, E. T.et al. (1984). Cerebral ventricular size in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41: 602–606CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Schwarzkopf, S. B., Nasrallah, H. A., Olson, S. C., Bogerts, B., McLaughlin, J. A., Mitra, T. (1991). Family history and brain morphology in schizophrenia: an MRI study. Psychiatry Res 40: 49–60CrossRef Google Scholar

Seidman, L. J., Faraone, S. V., Goldstein, J. M.et al. (1997). Reduced subcortical brain volumes in nonpsychotic siblings of schizophrenic patients: a pilot magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Med Genet 74: 507–5143.0.CO;2-G>CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Seidman, L. J., Faraone, S. V., Goldstein, J. M.et al. (1999). Thalamic and amygdala-hippocampal volume reductions in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia: an MRI-based morphometric analysis. Biol Psychiatry 46: 941–954CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Seidman, L. J., Faraone, S. V., Goldstein, J. M.et al. (2002). Left hippocampal volume as a vulnerability indicator for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 839–849CrossRef Google Scholar

Shapleske, J., Rossell, S. L., Woodruff, P. W. R., David, A. S. (1999). The planum temporale: a systematic, quantitative review of its structural, functional and clinical significance. Brain Res Rev 29: 26–49CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sharma, T., Lancaster, E., Lee, D.et al. (1998). Brain changes in schizophrenia. Volumetric MRI study of families multiply affected with schizophrenia: the Maudsley Family Study 5. Br J Psychiatry 173: 132–138CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sharma, T., Lancaster, E., Sigmundsson, T.et al. (1999). Lack of normal pattern of cerebral asymmetry in familial schizophrenic patients and their relatives: The Maudsley Family Study. Schizophr Res 40: 111–120CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shihabuddin, L., Silverman, J. M., Buchsbaum, M. S.et al. (1996). Ventricular enlargement associated with linkage marker for schizophrenia-related disorders in one pedigree. Mol Psychiatry 1: 215–222Google Scholar PubMed

Siever, L. J., Rotter, M., Losonczy, M.et al. (1995). Lateral ventricular enlargement in schizotypal personality disorder. Psychiatry Res 57: 109–118CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sigmundsson, T., Suckling, J., Maier, M.et al. (2001). Structural abnormalities in frontal, temporal, and limbic regions and interconnecting white matter tracts in schizophrenic patients with prominent negative symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 158: 234–243CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Silverman, J. M., Smith, C. J., Guo, S. L.et al. (1998). Lateral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenic probands and their siblings with schizophrenia-related disorders. Biol Psychiatry 43: 97–106CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Silverton, L., Finello, K. M., Schulsinger, F., Mednick, S. A. (1985). Low birth weight and ventricular enlargement in a high-risk sample. J Abnorm Psychol 94: 405–409CrossRef Google Scholar

Silverton, L., Mednick, S. A., Schulsinger, F., Parnas, J., Harrington, M. E. (1988a). Genetic risk for schizophrenia, birthweight, and cerebral ventricular enlargement. J Abnorm Psychol 97: 496–498CrossRef Google Scholar

Silverton, L., Mednick, S. A., Harrington, M. E. (1988b). Birthweight, schizophrenia and ventricular enlargement in a high-risk sample. Psychiatry 51: 272–280CrossRef Google Scholar

Sommer, I., Aleman, A., Ramsey, N., Bouma, A., Kahn, R. (2001). Handedness, language lateralisation and anatomical asymmetry in schizophrenia. Meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 178: 344–351CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Staal, W. G., Hulshoff, Pol H. E., Schnack, H., Schot, A. C., Kahn, R. S. (1998). Partial volume decrease of the thalamus in relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1784–1786CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Staal, W. G., Hulshoff Pol, H. E., Schnack, H. G.et al. (2000). Structural brain abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and their healthy siblings. Am J Psychiatry 157: 416–421CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Steel, R., Whalley, H., Miller, P.et al. (2002). Structural MRI of the brain in presumed carriers of genes for schizophrenia, their affected and unaffected siblings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 72: 455–458Google Scholar PubMed

Stefanis, N., Frangou, S., Yakeley, J.et al. (1999). Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia: effects of genetic risk and pregnancy and birth complications. Biol Psychiatry 46: 697–702CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Suddath, R. L., Christison, G. W., Torrey, E. F., Casanova, M. F., Weinberger, D. R. (1990). Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 322: 789–794CrossRef Google Scholar

Erp, T. G. M., Saleh, P. A., Rosso, I. M.et al. (2002). Contributions of genetic risk and fetal hypoxia to hippocampal volume in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, their unaffected siblings, and healthy unrelated volunteers. Am J Psychiatry 159: 1514–1520CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Horn, J. D., McManus, I. C. (1992). Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of studies of the ventricle: brain ratio (VBR). Br J Psychiatry 160: 687–697CrossRef Google Scholar

Vita, A., Dieci, M., Giobbio, G. M.et al. (1994). A reconsideration of the relationship between cerebral structural abnormalities and family history of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 53: 41–55CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Waldo, M. C., Cawthra, E., Adler, L. E.et al. (1994). Auditory sensory gating, hippocampal volume, and catecholamine metabolism in schizophrenics and their siblings. Schizophr Res 12: 93–106CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Walker, E. F., Lewine, R. R., Neumann, C. (1996). Childhood behavioral characteristics and adult brain morphology in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 22: 93–101CrossRef Google Scholar

Ward, K. E., Friedman, L., Wise, A., Schulz, S. C. (1996). Meta-analysis of brain and cranial size in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 22: 197–213CrossRef Google Scholar

Weinberger, D. R., DeLisi, L. E., Neophytides, A. N., Wyatt, R. J. (1981). Familial aspects of CT scan abnormalities in chronic schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 4: 65–71CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Woodruff, P. W. R., McManus, I. C., David, A. S. (1995). Meta-analysis of corpus callosum size in schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 58: 457–461CrossRef Google Scholar

Woods, B. T. (1998). Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1661–1670CrossRef Google Scholar

Wright, I. C., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Woodruff, P. W.et al. (2000). Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 157: 16–25CrossRef Google Scholar

Zorrilla, L. T. E., Cannon, T. D., Kronenberg, S.et al. (1997). Structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia: a family study. Biol Psychiatry 42: 1080–1986CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.