Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-6898cfcb55-zsp5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-11-11T21:25:48.137Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 11 - The Third Stage

from Part II - INTRAPARTUM AND POSTPARTUM

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2010

John Patrick O'Grady,
Martin L. Gimovsky,
Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello and
Kevin Giordano
John Patrick O'Grady
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

The process of placental delivery and the subsequent involution of the uterus during the puerperium are often described as the third and fourth stages of labor. This chapter presents a brief historical review concerning third- and fourth-stage events, followed by a discussion of the physiology of placental separation and uterine involution. The diagnosis and treatment of retained placenta and membranes (secundines), uterine inversion, postpartum hemorrhage and atony, and hematomas are considered. Important cultural and historical events in world history have been directly influenced by complications of involving the third stage of labor. Active management of the third stage of labor consists of the immediate administration of oxytocin after delivery of the infant, early cord clamping, and gentle traction on the cord, combined with gentle uterine massage to prompt placental separation. Periurethral lacerations, which often bleed freely, appear in the thin tissues on either side of the clitoris or urethra.

Keywords

active managementhematomasperiurethral lacerationspostpartum hemorrhagethird stage of laborpuerperiumplacental deliveryplacental separationuterine inversion

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Operative Obstetrics , pp. 257 - 296
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Mauriçeau, F: Observations sur la Grossesse et l'Accouchement des Femmes, et sur Leurs Maladies et celles des Enfants nouveau-nes, Edition Deuxième. Paris: La Compagnie des Libraires Associez, 1740.Google Scholar
Speert, H: Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1980.Google Scholar
Dewees, WP: Compendious System of Midwifery. Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1826.Google Scholar
Dewhurst, J. Royal Confinements. New York: St Martin's Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Herman, A, Weinraub, Z, Bukovsky, I, Arielis, S: Dynamic ultrasonographic imaging of the third stage of labor: New perspectives into third-stage mechanism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herman, A: Complicated third stage of labor: Time to switch on the scanner. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2000;15:89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deyer, TW, Ashton-Miller, JA, Baren, PM, Pearlman, MD: Myometrial contractile strain at uteroplacental separation during parturition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000 Jul; 183(1):156–159.Google Scholar
Benirschke, K, Kaufman, P: Pathology of the Human Placenta, 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990; pp. 275–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khudr, G, Soma, H, Benirschke, K: Trophoblastic origin of the X cell and the placental giant cell. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;115:530–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, CK, Benirschke, K: Autoradiographic study of the “X-cells” in the human placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;109:96–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, CK, Altshuler, GP, Benirschke, K: Karyotypic analysis of the X-cell in the human placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;37:72–82.Google ScholarPubMed
Kim, CK, Najtolin, T, Benirschke, K: Immunohistochemical studies of the X-cell in the human placenta with anti-human chorionic gonadotropin and anti-human placental lactogen. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;111:672–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludwig, H: Surface structure of the human term placenta and the uterine wall postpartum in the screen scan electron microscope. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971 Oct;111(3):328–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, WR, Davis, J: Placental site involution. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968;102:23–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mukaida, T, Yoshida, K, Soma, H: A surface ultrastructural study of placental separation site. Journal of Clinical Electron Microscopy 1975;8:5–6.Google Scholar
Anderson, WR, Davis, J: Placental site involution. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968;102:23–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lester, WM, Bartholomew, RA, Calvin, ED, Grimes, WH, Fish, JS, Galloway, WH: Role of retained placental fragments in immediate and delayed postpartum hemorrhage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1956;72:1214–1226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoberman, LK, Hawkinson, JA, Beechman, CT: Placental polyps: Report of 3 cases. Obstet Gynecol 1963;22:25–29.Google ScholarPubMed
Dyer, I, Bradburn, DM: An inquiry into the etiology of placental polyps. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;109:858–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thoreinsteinsson, VT, Kempers, RD: Delayed post- partum bleeding. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1970;107: 565–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, V, Moore, J: The midwife's management of the third stage of labour. Nurs Times 1985;81:47–50.Google ScholarPubMed
Baskett, TF: Acute uterine inversion: A review of 40 cases. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2002;24(12):953–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonham, DG: Intramuscular oxytocics and cord traction in the third stage of labour. Br Med J 1963;2:1620–1623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimbell, N: Brandt-Andrews technique of delivery of the placenta. Br Med J 1954;1:130–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, CJ: The third stage of labor with an evaluation of the Brandt method of expression of the placenta. South Med Surg 1940;102:605–608.Google Scholar
Kemp, J: A review of cord traction in the third stage of labour from 1963–1969. Med J Aust 1971; 1:899–903.Google Scholar
Brandt, ML: The mechanism and management of the third stage of labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1933;25:662–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, H: Pathology of the Placenta. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1978.Google ScholarPubMed
Naeye, RL: Disorders of the Placenta, Fetus and Neonate. St. Louis: Mosby–Year Book, 1992; pp. 92–115.Google Scholar
Rayburn, WF, Beynen, A, Brinkman, DL: Umbilical cord length and intrapartum complications. Obstet Gynecol 1981;57:450–452.Google ScholarPubMed
Hammar, M, Bostrom, K, Borgvall, B: Comparison between the influence of methylergometrine and oxytocin on the incidence of retained placenta in the third stage of labour. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1990;30(2):91–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prendiville, W, Elbourne, D, McDonald, S: Active versus expectant management in the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000; 3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotter, A, Ness, A, Tolosa, J: Prophylactic oxytocin for the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorbe, B: Active pharmacologic management of the third stage of labor. Obstet Gynecol 1978;52:694–697.Google ScholarPubMed
Pierre, F, Mesnard, L, Body, G: For a systematic policy of i.v. oxytocin-induced placenta deliveries in a unit where a fairly active management of the third stage of labor is yet applied: Results of a controlled trial. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1992 Jan;43(2):131–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, S, Abbott, JM, Higgins, SP: Prophylactic ergometrine-oxytocin versus oxytocin for the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004; 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elbourne, DR, Prendville, WJ, Carroli, G, Wood, J, McDonald, S: Prophylactic use of oxytocin in the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001; 4.Google ScholarPubMed
Thomas, IL, Jeffers, TM, Brazier, JM, Burt, CL, Barr, KE: Does cord drainage of placental blood facilitate delivery of the placenta?Aust NZ J Obstet Gynecol 1990;30:314–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soltani, H, Dickinson, F, Symonds, I: Placental cord drainage after spontaneous vaginal delivery as part of the management of the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev 2005; 4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wingeier, R, Griggs, R: Management of retained placenta using intraumbilical oxytocin injection. J Nurse Midwifery 1991;36:240–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bivins, HA, Cope, DA, Darrell, A, Newman, RB, Eller, DP: Randomized trial of intraumbilical vein oxytocin in midtrimester pregnancy losses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:1070–1073.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, MGP, Wildschut, HIJ, Boer, K, Kesiverda, G, Hoek, FJ: Umbilical vein administration of oxytocin for the management of retained placenta: Is it effective?Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1216–1219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bider, D, Zolti, M, Menashe, Y, Dulitzky, M, Mashiach, S, Ben-Rafael, Z: Oxytocin or saline in- jected intra-umbilically did not influence the third stage of labor. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1991; 70:321–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reddy, VV, Carey, JC: Effect of umbilical vein oxytocin on puerperal blood loss and length of the 3rd stage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:206–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroli, G, Bergel, E: Umbilical vein injection for management of retained placenta. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001; 4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stearns, J LetterJ. Stearns Saratoga County, New York to Mr. S. Akerly, dated Waterford, January 25, 1807. An account of the therapeutic use of pulvis parturiens. Medical Repository, V, 1807.
Chong, YS, Su, L, Arulkumaran, L S: Misoprostol: A quarter century of use, abuse, and creative misuse. Obstet Gynecol Sur. 2004 Feb;59(2):128–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joy, SP, Sanchez-Ramos, L, Kaunitz, AM: Misoprostol use during the third stage of labor. Intern J Gynecol Obstet. 2003; 82:143–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, S, El, Refaeyy H: Prostaglandins in the prevention and management of postpartum haemorrhage. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2003 Oct;17(5):811–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gülmezoglu, AM, Forna, F, Villar, J, Hofmeyr, GJ: Prostaglandins for prevention of postpartum haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004; 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poeschmann, RP, Doesburg, WH, Eskes, TK: A randomized comparison of oxytocin, sulprostone and placebo in the management of the third stage of labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991 Jun;98(6):528–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spears, RL, Anderson, GV, Brotman, S, Farrier, J, Kwan, J, Masto, A: The effect of early versus late cord clamping on signs of RDS. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966;95:564–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, DJ, Gabriel, M: Timing of cord ligation and newborn RDS. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1967; 97:1142–1144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, R, Ramji, S: Effect of delayed cord clamping on iron stores in infants born to anemic mothers: A randomized controlled trial. Indian Pediatr 2002 Feb:39(2):130–135.Google Scholar
Ladipo, OA: Management of the third stage of labour, with particular reference to reduction of feto-maternal transfusion. Br Med J 1972 Mar; 1(5802):721–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, IL, Jeffers, TM, Brazier, JM, Burt, CL, Barr, KE: Does cord drainage of placental blood facilitate delivery of the placenta?Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1990 Nov:30(4):314–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, JR: Episiotomy and vaginal trauma. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2005 Jun;32(2):307–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartmann, K, Viswanathan, M, Palmieri, R, Gartlehner, G, Thorp, J: Outcomes of routine epi-siotomy: A systematic review. JAMA 2005 May; 293(7):2141–2148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barter, RH, Parks, J, Tyndal, P: Median episiotomies and complete perineal lacerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1960;80:654–662.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dallas, DA: The routine use of episiotomy with a description of the continuous knotless repair. West J Surg Obstet Gynecol 1953:61:24–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Valsky, D, Rozenak, D, Patkova, R, Savchev, S, Messing, B, Yagel, D, Hochner-Celnikier, D: Postpartum evaluation of anal sphincter tears, clinically unrecognized and immediately following surgical repair, by transperineal 3D US in primiparous women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;193(6):S47–S47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sleep J, Roberts J, Chalmers I: Care in the second stage of labour. In: Chalmers, I, Enkin, M, Kierse, MJNC (eds): Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989; pp. 1129–1144.Google Scholar
Ould, F: A Treatise of Midwifery in Three Parts. Dublin: Nelson, 1742.Google Scholar
Nugent, FB: The primiparous perineum after forceps delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1935;30:249–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broomall, AE: The operation of episiotomy as a prevention of perineal ruptures during labor. Am J Obstet Dis Woman Child 1878;11:517–527.Google Scholar
Pomeroy, R: Shall we cut and reconstruct the perineum for every primipara?Am J Obstet Gynecol Dis Woman Child 1918;78:211–220.Google Scholar
DeLee, JB: The prophylactic forceps operation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1920;1:34–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thacker, SB, Banta, HD: Benefits and risks of episiotomy: An interpretive review of the English language literature 1860–1980. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1983;38:322–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilcox, LS, Strobino, DM, Baruffi, G, Dellinger, WS: Episiotomy and its role in the incidence of perineal lacerations in a maternity center and a tertiary hospital obstetric practice. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;160:1047–1052.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, JR, Soohoo, SL: Factors associated with rectal injury in spontaneous deliveries. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:732–738.Google ScholarPubMed
Shiono, P, Klebanoff, MA, Carey, CJ: Midline episiotomies: More harm than good?Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:765–770.Google ScholarPubMed
Coats, PM, Chan, KK, Wilkins, M, Beard, RJ: A comparison between midline and mediolateral episiotomies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1980 May;87(5):408–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sleep, JM, Grant, A, Garcia, J, Elbourne, D, Spencer, J, Chalmers, I: West Berkshire perineal management trial. Br Med J 1984;289:587–590.PubMed
Thorp, JM, Bowes, WA Jr, Brame, RG, Cefalo, R: Selected use of midline episiotomy: Effect on perineal trauma. Obstet Gynecol 1987 Aug;70(2):260–262.Google Scholar
Thorp, JM, Bowes, WA Jr. Episiotomy: Can its routine use be defended?Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 160:1027–1030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Power, RMH: The pelvic floor in parturition. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1946;83:296–311.Google ScholarPubMed
Gainey, HL: Postpartum observation of pelvic tissue drainage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1943;45:457–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldridge, AH, Watson, P: Analysis of end results of labor in primiparas after spontaneous versus prophylactic methods of delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1935;30:554–565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gainey, HL: Postpartum observation of pelvic tissue damage: Further studies. Obstet Gynecol 1955;70:800–807.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen WR: The pelvic division of labor. In: Cohen, WR, Friedman, EA (eds): Management of Labor. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Klein, MC, Gauthier, RJ, Robbins, JM, Kaczorowski, J, Jorgensen, SH, Franco, ED, Johnson, B, Waghorn, K, Gelfand, MM, Guralnick, MS: Relationship of episiotomy to perineal trauma and morbidity, sexual dysfunction, and pelvic floor relaxation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994 Sep;171(3):591–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eogan, M, O'Brien, C, Daly, L, Byrne, P, O'Connell, C, O'Herlihy C, : Monitoring pudendal nerve conduction during labor and early puerperium. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;193(6):S41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sultan, AH, Kamm, MA, Hudson, CN, Thomas, JM, Bartram, CI: Anal sphincter disruption during vaginal delivery. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1905–1911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American College of Obstetricians and Gyne- cologists: Postpartum hemorrhage. Technical Bulletin No. 76. October, 2006. Washington D. C.: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.
B-Lynch, C, Keith, LG, Lalonde, Andre B, Karoshi, M: A Textbook of Postpartum Hemorrhage. Duncow, Kirkmahoe, Dumfriesshire UK, Sapiens Publishing, 2006.Google Scholar
AbouZahr, C: Global burden of maternal death and disability. Br Med Bull 2003;67:1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Varner, M: Postpartum hemorrhage. Crit Care Clin 1991;7:883–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaunitz, AM, Hughes, JM, Grimes, DA, Smith, JC, Rochat, RW, Kafrissen, ME: Causes of maternal mortality in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 1985 May;65(5):605–612.Google Scholar
Pritchard, JA, Baldwin, RM, Dickey, JC: Blood volume changes in pregnancy and the puerperium, II: Red blood cell loss and changes in apparent blood volume during and following vaginal delivery, cesarean section, and cesarean section plus total hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1962;84:1271–1273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Refaey, S, Rodeck, C: Postpartum haemorrhage: Definitions, medical and surgical management: A time for change. Br Med J 2003;67:205–217.Google Scholar
Beydoun SN: Postpartum hemorrhage and hypovolemic shock. In: Hassam, F (ed): Diagnosis and Management of Obstetric Emergencies. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1982; pp. 193–213.Google Scholar
Benedetti TJ: Obstetric hemorrhage. In: Gabbe, SG (ed): Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1991; pp. 485–515.Google Scholar
Bagga, R, Jain, V, Kalra, J, Chopra, S, Gopalan, S: Uterovaginal packing with rolled gauze in post- partum hemorrhage. Med Gyn Med 2004 Feb; 6(1):50.Google Scholar
Haq, G, Tayyab, S: Control of postpartum and postabortal haemorrhage with uterine packing. J Pak Med Assoc 2005 Sep;55(9):369–371.Google Scholar
Hsu, S, Rodgers, B, Lele, A, Yeh, J: Use of packing in obstetric hemorrhage of uterine origin. J Reprod Med 2003 Feb;48(2):69–71.Google Scholar
Druzin, ML: Packing of lower uterine segment for control of postcesarean bleeding in instances of placenta previa. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1989 Dec;169(6):543–545.Google Scholar
Wittich, AC, Salminen, ER, Hardin, EL, Desantis, RA: Uterine packing in the combined management of obstetrical hemorrhage. Mil Med 1996 Mar;161(3):180–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maier, RC: Control of postpartum hemorrhage with uterine packing. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169:317–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, JW, Jeong, HJ, Joh, JH, Park, JS, Jun, KJ, Kim, SH: Percutaneous transcatheter angiographic embolization in the management of obstetric hemorrhage. J Reprod Med 2003 Apr;48(4):268–276.Google Scholar
Ornan, D, White, R, Pollak, J, Tal, M: Pelvic embolization for intractable postpartum hemorr- hage: Long-term follow-up and implications for fertility. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102(5 Pt 1):904–910.Google Scholar
Deux, JF, Bazot, M, Blanche, AF, Tassart, M, Khalik, A, Berkane, N, Uzan, S, Boudghene, F: Uncontrollable postpartum bleeding. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001;177(1):145–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akhter, S, Begum, MR, Kabir, Z, Rashid, M, Laila, TR, Zabeen, F: Use of a condom to control massive postpartum hemorrhage. Med Gen Med 2003 Sep 11;5(3):38.Google Scholar
Bakri, YN, Amri, A, Abdul, Jabbar F: Tamponade-balloon for obstetrical bleeding. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2001 Aug;74(2):139–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loor, JA, Dam, PA: Foley catheters for uncontrollable obstetric or gynecologic hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 1996 Oct;88(4 Pt 2):737.Google Scholar
Seror, J, Allouche, C, Elhaik, S: Use of Sengstaken-Blakemore tube in massive postpartum hemorr- hage: A series of 17 cases. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2005 Jul;84(7):660–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ojala, K, Perälä, J, Kariniemi, J, Ranta, P, Raudaskoski, T, Tekay, A: Arterial embolization and prophylactic catheterization for the treatment for severe obstetric hemorrhage. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2005 Nov;84(11):1075–1080.Google Scholar
O'Leary, JL, O'Leary, JA: Uterine artery ligation for control of postcesarean section hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 1974;43:849–853.Google ScholarPubMed
Clark, SL, Phelan, JP, Yeh, SY, Bruce, SR, Paul, RH: Hypogastric artery ligation for obstetric hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:353–356.Google ScholarPubMed
Clark, SL, Yeh, SY, Phelan, JP, Bruce, SR, Paul, RH: Emergency hysterectomy for obstetric hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 1984;64:376–380.Google ScholarPubMed
Allam, MS, B-Lynch, C: The B-Lynch and other uterine compression suture techniques. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2005 Jun;89(3):236–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, CY, Madrazo, B, Drukker, BH: Ultrasonic evaluation of the postpartum uterus in the management of postpartum bleeding. Obstet Gynecol 1981;58:227–232.Google ScholarPubMed
Achanna, S, Mohamed, Z, Krishnan, M. Puerperal uterine inversion: A report of four cases. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2006 Jun;32(3):341–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miras, T, Collet, F, Seffert, P. Acute puerperal uterine inversion: Two cases. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 2002 Nov;31(7):668–671.Google Scholar
Platt, LD, Druzin, ML. Acute puerperal inversion of the uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981;141:187–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham FG, MacDonald PC, Leveno KJ, et al: Conduct of normal labor and delivery. In: Cunningham, FG, MacDonald, PC, Leveno, KJ (eds): Williams Obstetrics, 19th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange, 1993; pp. 371–394.Google Scholar
Watson, P, Besch, N, Bowes, WA Jr: Management of acute and subacute puerperal inversion of the uterus. Obstet Gynecol 1980 Jan;55(1):12–16.Google Scholar
Bowes WA Jr, Watson PT: Inversion of the uterus. In: Iffy, L, Apuzzio, JJ, Vintzeleos, AM (eds): Operative Obstetrics, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992; pp. 298–303.Google Scholar
Kochenour, NK: Intrapartum obstetric emergencies. Crit Care Clin 1991 Oct;7(4):851–864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah-Hoseini, R, Evrard, JR: Puerperal uterine inversion. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:567–570.Google Scholar
Bellucci, M, DiOrio, J, Moubayed, S: Uterine inversion secondary to placenta accreta in a diethylstilbestrol-exposed parturient: A case report. J Reprod Med 1987;32:236–237.Google Scholar
Bell, JE Jr, Wilson, F, Wilson, L: Puerperal inversion of the uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1953;66:767–769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romo, MS, Grimes, DA, Strassle, PO: Infarction of the uterus from subacute incomplete inversion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992 Mar;166(3):878–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kovacs, BW, DeVore, GR: Management of acute and subacute puerperal uterine inversion with terbutaline sulfate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 150:784–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thiery, M, Delbeke, L: Acute uterine inversion: Two-step management with a beta-mimetic and a prostaglandin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153: 891–892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catanzarite, VA, Moffitt, KD, Baker, ML, Awadalla, SG, Argubright, KF, Perkins, RP: New approaches to the management of acute puerperal uterine inversion. Obstet Gynecol 1986;68:7s–10s.Google ScholarPubMed
Thomas, AJ, Greer, IA: Non-haemorrhagic obstetric shock. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2000 Feb;14(1):19–441.Google Scholar
Beringer, RM, Patteril, M: Puerperal uterine inversion and shock. Br J Anaesth 2004;92(3):439–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, P, Besch, N, Bowes, WA Jr. Management of acute and subacute puerperal inversion of the uterus. Obstet Gynecol 1980 Jan;55(1):12–16.Google Scholar
DeSimone, CA, Norris, MC, Leighton, BL: Intravenous nitroglycerin aids manual extraction of a retained placenta. Anesthesiology 1990;73:787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beringer, RM, Patteril, M: Puerperal uterine inversion and shock. Br J Anaesth 2004;92(3):439–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wendel, PJ, Cox, SM: Emergency obstetric management of uterine inversion. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1986;68.Google Scholar
Dayan, SS, Schwalbe, SS: The use of small-dose intravenous nitroglycerine in a case of uterine inversion. Anesth Analg 1996;82:1091–1093.Google Scholar
Hostetler, DR, Bosworth, MF. Uterine inversion: A life-threatening obstetric emergency. J Am Board Fam Pract 2000;13:120–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altabef, KM, Spencer, JT, Zinberg, S: Intravenous nitroglycerin for uterine relaxation of an inverted uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1237–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, HR: O'Sullivan's hydrostatic reduction of an inverted uterus: Sonar sequence recorded. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1998 Oct;12(4):283–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntington, JL: Acute inversion of the uterus. Boston Med Surg J 1921;15:376–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brar, HS, Greenspoon, JS, Platt, LD, Paul, RH: Acute puerperal inversion: New approaches to management. J Reprod Med 1989;34:173–177.Google Scholar
Haultain, FWN: The treatment of chronic uterine inversion by abdominal hysterectomy with a successful case. Br Med J 1901;2:974–980.Google Scholar
Wilson SB: Retained placenta. In: Friedman, EA, Acker, DB, Sachs, BP (eds): Obstetrical Decision Making, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: BC Decker, 1987; pp. 264–265.Google Scholar
Combs, CA, Laros, RK: Prolonged third stage of labor: Morbidity and risk factors. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:863–867.Google ScholarPubMed
Romero, R, Hsu, YC, Athanassiadis, AP, Hagay, Z, Avila, C, Nores, J, Roberts, A, Mazor, M, Hobbins, JC: Preterm delivery: A risk factor for retained placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:823–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkin-Jensen, C, Strom, V, Nielsen, MD, Rosen-kilde-Gram, B: Removing a retained placenta by oxytocin – a controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:155–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earl, V, Bulmer, JN, Briones, A: Placenta accreta: A immunohistological study of trophoblast populations. Placenta 1987;8:273–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khong, TY, Robertson, WB: Placenta accreta and placenta praevia accreta. Placenta 1987;8:399–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sumawong, V, Nondasuta, A, Thanapath, S, Budthimedhee V: Placenta accreta: A review of the literature and a summary of 10 cases. Obstet Gynecol 1966 Apr;27(4):511–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, A, DeFazio, J, DeCherney, A: Severe obstetric complications after aggressive treatment of Asherman syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 67:864–867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulmer, JN: Immune aspects of pathology of the placental bed contributing to pregnancy pathology. Baillière Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1992;6:461–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barss, P, Misch, KA: Endemic placenta accreta in a population of remote villagers in Papua New Guinea. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990 Feb;97(2): 167–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ecker, JL, Sorem, KA, Soodak, L, Roberts, DJ, Safon, , Osathanondh, R: Placenta increta complicating a first-trimester abortion: A case report. J Reprod Med 1992;37:893–895.Google ScholarPubMed
Harden, MA, Walters, MD, Valente, PT: Postabortal hemorrhage due to placenta increta: A case report. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:523–526.Google ScholarPubMed
Kupferminc, MJ, Tamura, RK, Wigton, TR, Glassenberg, R, Socol, ML: Placenta accreta is associated with elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein. Obstet Gynecol 1993 Aug;82(2):266–269.Google Scholar
McCool, RA, Bombard, AT, Bartholomew, DA, Calhoun, BC: Unexplained positive/elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein associated with placenta increta: A case report. J Reprod Med 1992 Sep;37(9):826–828.Google Scholar
Ginsberg, NA, Fausone, ME, Gerbie, M, Applebaum, M, Verlinsky, Y: Elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein associated with placenta accreta. J Assist Reprod Genet 1992:497–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zelop, C, Nadel, A, Frigoletto, FD Jr, Pauker, S, MacMillan, M, Benacerraf, BR: Placenta accreta/percreta/increta: A cause of elevated maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 80:693–694.Google ScholarPubMed
Finberg, HJ, Williams, JW: Placenta accreta: prospective sonographic diagnosis in patients with placenta previa and prior cesarean section. J Ultrasound Med 1992;11:333–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman-Tretin, JC, Koeningsberg, M, Rabin, A, Anyaegbunam A: Placenta accreta. Additional sonographic observations. J Ultrasound Med 1992; 11:29–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosemond, RL, Kepple, DM: Transvaginal color Doppler sonography in the prenatal diagnosis of placental accreta. Obstet Gynecol 1992;80:508–510.Google Scholar
Thorp, JM Jr, Councell, RB, Sandridge, DA, Wiest, HH: Antepartum diagnosis of placenta previa percreta by magnetic resonance imaging. Obstet Gynecol 1992;80:506–508.Google ScholarPubMed
Maldjian, C, Adam, R, Pelosi, M, Pelosi, M 3rd, Rudelli, RD, Maldjian, J: MRI appearance of placenta percreta and placenta accreta. Magn Reson Imaging 1999 Sep;17(7):965–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanco, LM, Schrimmer, DB, Paul, RH, Mishell, DR Jr: Emergency peripartum hysterectomy and associated risk factors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168:879–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramin SM, Gilstrap LC II: Placental abnormalities: Previa, abruption and accreta. In: Plauch, WC, Morrison, JC, O'Sullivan, M (eds): Surgical Obstetrics. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1992; pp. 203–216.Google Scholar
Sanders, RR. Placenta praevia percreta invading the urinary bladder. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;32:375–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leaphart, WL, Schapiro, H, Broome, J, Welander, CJ, Bernstein, IM: Placenta percreta with bladder invasion. Obstet Gynecol 1997:89:834–835.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robie, GF, Morgan, MA, Payne, GG Jr, Wasemiller-Smith, L: Logothetopulos pack for the management of uncontrollable postpartum hemorrhage. Am J Perinatol 1990 Oct;7(4):327–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hallak, M, Dildy, GA 3d, Hurley, TJ, Moise, KJ Jr: Transvaginal pressure pack for life-threatening pelvic hemorrhage secondary to placenta accreta. Obstet Gynecol 1991;78:938–940.Google ScholarPubMed
Sweet RL, Gibbs RS: Postpartum infection. In: Rl, Sweet, Gibbs, RS: Infectious Diseases of the Female Genital Tract. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1990; pp. 356–373.Google Scholar
Shy, KK, Eschenbach, DA: Fatal perineal cellulitis from an episiotomy site. Obstet Gynecol 1979; 54:292–298.Google ScholarPubMed
Maynor, M: Necrotizing fasciitis. eMedicine, 2005 http//:www.emedicine.come/emerg.topic332.htm.
Golde, S, Ledger, WJ: Necrotizing fasciitis in postpartum patients: A report of four cases. Obstet Gynecol 1977; 50:670–673.Google ScholarPubMed
Meltzer, RM: Necrotizing fasciitis and progressive bacterial synergistic gangrene of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1983;61:757–760.Google ScholarPubMed
Ewing, TL, Smale, , Elliot, FA: Maternal deaths associated with postpartum vulvar edema. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;134:173–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pruitt, BA: Biopsy diagnosis of surgical infection [editorial]. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1737–1738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stamenkovic, L, Lew, PD: Early recognition of potentially fatal necrotizing fasciitis: The use of frozen-section biopsy. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1689–1693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aetshuler, G: Placenta within the medicolegal imperative. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1991;115:688–695.Google Scholar
Hargitai1, B, Marton, T, Cox, PM: Examination of the human placenta. J Clin Pathol 2004;57:785–792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yetter, JF: Examination of the placenta. Am Fam Physician 1998 Mdr; 57(5):1045–1054.Google ScholarPubMed
Salafia CM, Vintzileos AM: Why all placentas should be examined by a pathologist in 1990. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990 Oct;163(4 Pt 1):1282–1293.
Roberts, DK: A guest editorial: Medical-legal aspects of placental examination. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1993;48:777–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schindler, NR: Importance of the placenta and cord in the defense of neurologically impaired infant claims. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1991;115:685–687.Google ScholarPubMed
Altshuler, G, Deppisch, LM: College of American Pathologists Conference XIX on the examination of placenta: Report of the working group on indications for placental examinations. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1991;115:701–703.Google Scholar
Benirschke, K: The placenta in the litigation process. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:1445–1450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeye, RL: Functionally important disorders of the placenta, umbilical cord, and fetal membranes. Hum Pathol 1987;18:680–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×