Emerging global contexts have resurrected debates surrounding the concept of citizenship. In particular, vast increases in the numbers of refugees, asylum seekers and immigrants seeking to settle in new countries raise important questions, such as, what does it mean to be a citizen today? What kind of citizen might one aspire to become? Who is entitled to citizenship? What is the role of the state in promoting forms of citizenship that contribute to the flourishing of that particular society? What are the attributes needed by today's citizens for participating effectively in social and democratic processes and for pursuing personal fulfilment in our times?

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITIZENSHIP

Any discussion related to the understanding of citizenship takes us necessarily to the Greek and Roman origins of this concept. As Gorman (1992) argues in his detailed account of the Greek and Roman origins of citizenship, it is through comprehending the past that we can better understand our present. The notion of citizenship can be traced back to Athens and Sparta between the period from the sixth to the fourth centuries bc. At that time, being a citizen meant being willing to actively engage in public duties within the city, or the polis. The notion of citizenship in ancient Greece focused on a shared commitment to civic duties in matters of government and affairs of the state (Faulks, 2000). This civic republican view of citizenship required loyalty and active engagement from citizens who were expected to live according to shared values and rules. Entitlement to citizenship in ancient Greece was exclusively a male domain. Furthermore, family slaves were not entitled to citizenship. Even men could only become citizens by degrees, first through family membership as younger boys, later through a phratry, then a tribe and finally at around eighteen years of age to the city.