Titan's haze

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667398.011

8 - Titan's haze

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 January 2014

R. West ,

P. Lavvas ,

C. Anderson and

H. Imanaka

Edited by

Ingo Müller-Wodarg ,

Caitlin A. Griffith ,

Emmanuel Lellouch and

Thomas E. Cravens

Show author details

R. West: Affiliation:
California Institute of Technology
P. Lavvas: Affiliation:
Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne
C. Anderson: Affiliation:
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Planetary Systems Lab
H. Imanaka: Affiliation:
University of Arizona
Ingo Müller-Wodarg: Affiliation:
Imperial College London
Caitlin A. Griffith: Affiliation:
University of Arizona
Emmanuel Lellouch: Affiliation:
Observatoire de Paris, Meudon
Thomas E. Cravens: Affiliation:
University of Kansas

Book contents

Get access

Summary

8.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes what is known about Titan's extensive photochemical haze, which extends from the surface to about 1000 km altitude. The haze determines the appearance of the moon across a broad spectral range. It dominates the opacity short of 5 μm and it also affects the radiation transfer in the thermal IR. Thus, haze plays a major role in Titan's radiative energy budget. It is also a sink for gas phase photochemistry and a source of surface material, and the haze has much to tell us about atmospheric dynamics.

A great deal has already been written about Titan's haze, summarized most recently by both Tomasko and West (2009) and Lorenz et al. (2009). In this chapter we briefly review the key attributes of the haze determined from in situ measurements made by the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR) instrument and then focus on developments more recent than those reviewed by Tomasko and West (2009). These developments include new observations and analyses, laboratory investigations relevant to the haze's physical characteristics (size, shape, and density), its chemical composition and optical properties, and microphysical model studies that simulate the interaction of haze with the gas phase background and the impact of haze in the radiative energy budget and the atmospheric dynamics.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: Titan
Interior, Surface, Atmosphere, and Space Environment
, pp. 285 - 321

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667398.011 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Achterberg, R. K., Conrath, B. J., Gierasch, P. J., Flasar, F. M., et al. 2008a. Observation of a Tilt of Titan's Middle-Atmospheric Superrotation. Icarus, 197, 549–555. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.05.014.Google Scholar

Achterberg, R. K., Conrath, B. J., Gierasch, P. J., Flasar, F. M., et al. 2008b. Titan's Middle-Atmospheric Temperatures and Dynamics Observed by the Cassini Composite Infrared Spectrometer. Icarus, 194, 263–277. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.09.029.Google Scholar

Ádárnkovics, M., and Boering, K. A. 2003. Photochemical Formation Rates of Organic Aerosols through Time-Resolved in Situ Laboratory Measurements. J. Geophys. Res. (Planets), 108, 5092. doi:10.1029/2002JE002028.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. M., and Samuelson, R. E. 2011. Titan's Aerosol and Stratospheric Ice Opacities between 18 and 500 μm: Vertical and Spectral Characteristics from Cassini CIRS. Icarus, 212, 762–778. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.01.024.Google Scholar

Anderson, C. M., Samuelson, R. E., Bjoraker, G. L., and Achterberg, R. K. 2010. Particle Size and Abundance of HC3N Ice in Titan's Lower Stratosphere at High Northern Latitudes. Icarus, 207, 914–922. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.024.Google Scholar

Bakes, E. L. O., McKay, C. P., and Bauschlicher, C. W. 2002. Photoelectric Charging of Submicron Aerosols and Macromolecules in the Titan Haze. Icarus, 157, 464–475. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6843.Google Scholar

Bar-Nun, A., Kleinfeld, I., and Ganor, E. 1988. Shape and Optical Properties of Aerosols Formed by Photolysis of Acetylene, Ethylene, and Hydrogen Cyanide. J. Geophys. Res., 93, 8383–8387. doi:10.1029/JD093iD07p08383.Google Scholar

Bar-Nun, A., Dimitrov, V, and Tomasko, M. 2008. Titan's Aerosols: Comparison between Our Model and DISR Findings. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 708–714. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.11.014.Google Scholar

Barth, E. L., and Toon, O. B. 2003. Microphysical Modeling of Ethane Ice Clouds in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 162, 94–113. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00067-2.Google Scholar

Barth, E. L., and Toon, O. B. 2006. Methane, Ethane, and Mixed Clouds in Titan's Atmosphere: Properties Derived from Microphysical Modeling. Icarus, 182, 230–250. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.12.017.Google Scholar

Bellucci, A., Sicardy, B., Drossart, P., Rannou, P., et al. 2009. Titan Solar Occultation Observed by Cassini/VIMS: Gas Absorption and Constraints on Aerosol Composition. Icarus, 201, 198–216. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.024.Google Scholar

Bernard, J.-M., Quirico, E., Brissaud, O., Montagnac, G., et al. 2006. Reflectance Spectra and Chemical Structure of Titan's Tholins: Application to the Analysis of Cassini Huygens Observations. Icarus, 185, 301–307. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.06.004.Google Scholar

Borucki, W. J., Levin, Z., Whitten, R. C., Keesee, R. G., et al. 1987. Predictions of the Electrical Conductivity and Charging of the Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 72, 604–622. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(87)90056-X.Google Scholar

Borucki, W. J., Whitten, R. C., Bakes, E. L. O., Barth, E., et al. 2006. Predictions of the Electrical Conductivity and Charging of the Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 181(Apr), 527–544. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.030.Google Scholar

Brucato, J. R., Migliorini, A., Barucci, M. A., Carvano, J. M., et al. 2010. Reflectance Spectra of Titan Tholin between 7000 and 10 cm-1. Interpretation of Cassini/CIRS Observation of Saturn's Satellite Phoebe. Astron. and Astrophys., 516, A92+. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912054.Google Scholar

Cabane, M., Chassefiere, E., and Israël, G. 1992. Formation and Growth of Photochemical Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 96, 176–189. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(92)90071-E.Google Scholar

Cabane, M., Rannou, P., Chassefiere, E., and Israël, G. 1993. Fractal Aggregates in Titan's Atmosphere. Planet. and Space Sci., 41, 257–267. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(93)90021-S.Google Scholar

Chassefiere, E., and Cabane, M. 1995. Two Formation Regions for Titan's Hazes: Indirect Clues and Possible Synthesis Mechanisms. Planet. Space Sci., 43, 91–103. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(94)00138-H.Google Scholar

Clarke, D. W., and Ferris, J. P. 1997. Titan Haze: Structure and Properties of Cyanoacetylene and Cyanoacetylene-Acetylene Photopolymers. Icarus, 127, 158–172. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5667.Google Scholar

Coates, A. J., Crary, F. J., Lewis, G. R., Young, D. T., et al. 2007. Discovery of Heavy Negative Ions in Titan's Ionosphere. Geophysical Research Lett., 342, L22103. doi:10.1029/2007GL030978.Google Scholar

Coates, A. J., Wellbrock, A., Lewis, G. R., Jones, G. H., et al. 2009. Heavy Negative Ions in Titan's Ionosphere: Altitude and Latitude Dependence. Planet. Space. Sci., 57, 1866–1871. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.05.009.Google Scholar

Coll, P., Coscia, D., Smith, N., Gazeau, M.-C., et al. 1999. Experimental Laboratory Simulation of Titan's Atmosphere: Aerosols and Gas Phase. Planet. Space Sci., 47, 1331–1340. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00054-9.Google Scholar

Cours, T., Rannou, P., Coustenis, A., and Hamdouni, A. 2010. A New Analysis of the ESO Very Large Telescope (VLT) Observations of Titan at 2 μm. Planet. Space Sci., 58, 1708–1714. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.12.009.Google Scholar

Cours, T., Burgalat, J., Rannou, P., Rodriguez, S., etal. 2011. Dual Origin of Aerosols in Titan's Detached Haze Layer. Astrophys. J. Lett., 741, L32. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/741/2/L32.Google Scholar

Coustenis, A., Bézard, B., and Gautier, D. 1989. Titan's Atmosphere from Voyager Infrared Observations. I – The Gas Composition of Titan's Equatorial Region. Icarus, 80, 54–76. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90161-9.Google Scholar

Coustenis, A., Schmitt, B., Khanna, R. K., and Trotta, F. 1999. Plausible Condensates in Titan's Stratosphere from Voyager Infrared Spectra. Planet. Space Sci., 47, 1305–1329. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00053-7.Google Scholar

Coustenis, A., Achterberg, R. K., Conrath, B. J., Jennings, D. E., et al. 2007. The Composition of Titan's Stratosphere from Cassini/CIRS Mid-Infrared Spectra. Icarus, 189, 35–62. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.12.022.Google Scholar

Crary, F. J., Magee, B. A., Mandt, K., Waite, J. H., et al. 2009. Heavy Ions, Temperatures and Winds in Titan's Ionosphere: Combined Cassini CAPS and INMS Observations. Planet. Space Sci., 57, 1847–1856. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.09.006.Google Scholar

Cruikshank, D. P., Imanaka, H., and Dalle Ore, C. M. 2005. Tholins as Coloring Agents on Outer Solar System Bodies. Adv. in Space Res., 36, 178–183. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.07.026.Google Scholar

Cui, J., Yelle, R. V, Vuitton, V, Waite, J. H., et al. 2009. Analysis of Titan's Neutral Upper Atmosphere from Cassini Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer Measurements. Icarus, 200, 581–615. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.005.Google Scholar

Curtis, D. B., Hatch, C. D., Hasenkopf, C. A., et al. 2008. Laboratory Studies of Methane and Ethane Adsorption and Nucleation onto Organic Particles: Application to Titan's Clouds. Icarus, 195, 792–801. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.02.003.Google Scholar

Curtis, D. B., Glandorf, D. L., Toon, O. B., Tolbert, M. A., et al. 2005. Laboratory Studies of Butane Nucleation on Organic Haze Particles: Application to Titan's Clouds. J. Phys. Chem. A, 109(7), 1382–1390. doi:10.1021/jp045596h.Google Scholar

de Kok, R., Irwin, P. G. J., Teanby, N. A., Nixon, C. A., et al. 2007. Characteristics of Titan's Stratospheric Aerosols and Condensate Clouds from Cassini CIRS Far-Infrared Spectra. Icarus, 191, 223–235. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.04.003.Google Scholar

de Kok, R., Irwin, P. G. J., and Teanby, N. A. 2008. Condensation in Titan's Stratosphere during Polar Winter. Icarus, 197, 572–578. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.05.024.Google Scholar

de Kok, R., Irwin, P. G. J., Teanby, N. A., Vinatier, S., et al. 2010. A Tropical Haze Band in Titan's Stratosphere. Icarus, 207, 485–490. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.10.021.Google Scholar

de Vanssay, E., McDonald, G. D., and Khare, B. N. 1999. Evidence from Scanning Electron Microscopy of Experimental Influences on the Morphology of Triton and Titan Tholins. Planet. Space Sci., 47, 433–440.Google Scholar

dello Russo, N., and Khanna, R. K. 1996. Laboratory Infrared Spectroscopic Studies of Crystalline Nitriles with Relevance to Outer Planetary Systems. Icarus, 123, 366–395. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.0165.Google Scholar

Dimitrov, V, and Bar-Nun, A. 1997. An Adequate Kinetic Model of Photochemical Aerosol Formation in Titan's Atmosphere. Adv. Space Res., 19, 1103–1112. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(97)00359-1.Google Scholar

Dimitrov, V, and Bar-Nun, A. 1999. A Model of Energy-Dependent Agglomeration of Hydrocarbon Aerosol Particles and Implication to Titan's Aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 30(1), 35–49.Google Scholar

Dimitrov, V, and Bar-Nun, A. 2002. Aging of Titan's Aerosols. Icarus, 156, 530–538. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6802.Google Scholar

Dimitrov, V., and Bar-Nun, A. 2003. Hardening of Titan's Aerosols by Their Charging. Icarus, 166, 440–443. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.07.007.Google Scholar

Friedlander, S. 2000. Smoke, Dust and Haze. Fundamentals of Aerosol Dynamics. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press.

Griffith, C. A., Penteado, P., Rannou, P., Brown, R., et al. 2006. Evidence for a Polar Ethane Cloud on Titan. Science, 313(5793), 1620–1622. doi:10.1126/science.1128245.Google Scholar

Hadamcik, E., Renard, J.-B., Alcouffe, G., Cernogora, G., et al. 2009. Laboratory Light-Scattering Measurements with Titan's Aerosols Analogues Produced by a Dusty Plasma. Planet. Space Sci., 57, 1631–1641. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.06.013.Google Scholar

Hasenkopf, C. A., Beaver, M. R., Trainer, M. G., Langley Dewitt, H., et al. 2010. Optical Properties of Titan and Early Earth Haze Laboratory Analogs in the Mid-Visible. Icarus, 207, 903–913. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.015.Google Scholar

Heitz, T., Drevillon, B., Godet, C., and Bouree, J. E. 1998. Quantitative Study of C-H Bonding in Polymerlike Amorphous Carbon Films Using In Situ Infrared Ellipsometry. Phys. Rev. B (Condensed Matter and Materials Physics), 581, 13957–13973. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.58.13957.Google Scholar

Hourdin, F., Talagrand, O., Sadourny, R., Courtin, R., et al. 1995. Numerical Simulation of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere of Titan. Icarus, 117, 358–374. doi:10.1006/icar.1995.1162.Google Scholar

Hutzell, W. T., McKay, C. P, Toon, O. B, and Hourdin, F. 1996. Simulations of Titan's Brightness by a Two-Dimensional Haze Model. Icarus, 119, 112–129. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.0005.Google Scholar

Imanaka, H., and Smith, M. A. 2007. Role of Photoionization in the Formation of Complex Organic Molecules in Titan's Upper Atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 340, L02204. doi:10.1029/2006GL028317.Google Scholar

Imanaka, H., Khare, B. N., Elsila, J. E., Bakes, E. L. O., et al. 2004. Laboratory Experiments of Titan Tholin Formed in Cold Plasma at Various Pressures: Implications for Nitrogen-Containing Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds in Titan Haze. Icarus, 168, 344–366. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.014.Google Scholar

Imanaka, H., Khare, B. N., McKay, C. P., and Cruikshank, D. P. 2005. Complex Refractive Indices of Tholins Produced from Various Initial Gas Mixtures and Formation Pressures: Implications for Titan, the Early Earth, and the Outer Solar System Bodies. Pages 772+ of AAS/Division for Planetary Sciences Meeting Abstracts #37. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. vol. 37.

Imanaka, H., and Smith, M. A. 2010. Formation of Nitrogenated Organic Aerosols in the Titan Upper Atmosphere. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 107(28), 12423–12428. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913353107.Google Scholar

Imanaka, H., Cruikshank, D. P., Khare, B. N., and McKay, C. P. 2012. Optical Constants of Titan Tholins at Mid-Infrared Wavelengths (2.5-25 μm) and Possible Chemical Nature of Titan's Haze Particles. Icarus, 218, 247–261.Google Scholar

Kaiser, R. I., Maksyutenko, P., Ennis, C., Zhang, F., et al. 2010. Untangling the Chemical Evolution of Titan's Atmosphere and Surface – From Homogeneous to Heterogeneous Chemistry. Faraday Discuss., 147, 429–478. doi:10.1039/C003599H.Google Scholar

Karkoschka, E., and Tomasko, M. G. 2009. Rain and Dewdrops on Titan Based on In Situ Imaging. Icarus, 199, 442–448. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.09.020.Google Scholar

Karkoschka, Erich. 1998. Methane, Ammonia, and Temperature Measurements of the Jovian Planets and Titan from CCD Spectrophotometry. Icarus, 133, 134–146. doi:10.1006/icar.1998.5913.Google Scholar

Khanna, R., Pererajarmer, M., and Ospina, M. 1987. Vibrational Infrared and Raman Spectra of Dicyanoacetylene. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular Spectroscopy, 43, 421–425. doi:10.1016/0584-8539(87)80128-9.Google Scholar

Khanna, R. K. 2005. Condensed Species in Titan's Stratosphere: Confirmation of Crystalline Cyanoacetylene (HC3N) and Evidence for Crystalline Acetylene (C2H2) on Titan. Icarus, 178, 165–170. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.03.011.Google Scholar

Khare, B. N., Sagan, C., Arakawa, E. T., Suits, F., et al. 1984. Optical Constants of Organic Tholins Produced in a Simulated Titanian Atmosphere – From Soft X-ray to Microwave Frequencies. Icarus, 60, 127–137. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(84)90142-8.Google Scholar

Khare, B. N., Bakes, E. L. O., Imanaka, H., McKay, C. P., et al. 2002. Analysis of the Time-Dependent Chemical Evolution of Titan Haze Tholin. Icarus, 160, 172–182. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6899.Google Scholar

Koskinen, T. T., Yelle, R. V., Snowden, D. S., Lavvas, P., et al. 2011. The Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere of Titan Revealed by Cassini/UVIS Stellar Occultations. Icarus, 216, 507–534. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.09.022.Google Scholar

Landera, Alexander, and Mebel, Alexander M. 2010. Mechanisms of Formation of Nitrogen-Containing Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds in Low-Temperature Environments of Planetary Atmospheres: A Theoretical Study. Faraday Discuss., 147, 479–494. doi:10.1039/C003475D.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P., Yelle, R. V, and Vuitton, V 2009. The Detached Haze Layer in Titan's Mesosphere. Icarus, 201, 626–633. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.01.004.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P., Yelle, R. V, and Griffith, C. A. 2010. Titan's Vertical Aerosol Structure at the Huygens Landing Site: Constraints on Particle Size, Density, Charge, and Refractive Index. Icarus, 210, 832–842. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.07.025.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P., Griffith, C. A., and Yelle, R. V 2011a. Condensation in Titan's Atmosphere at the Huygens Landing Site. Icarus, 215, 732–750. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.040.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P., Sander, M., Kraft, M., and Imanaka, H. 2011b. Surface Chemistry and Particle Shape: Processes for the Evolution of Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Astrophys. J., 728, 80. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/728/2/80.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P. P., Coustenis, A., and Vardavas, I. M. 2008a. Coupling Photochemistry with Haze Formation in Titan's Atmosphere, Part I: Model Description. Planet. Space Sci., 56(1), 27–66. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.05.026.Google Scholar

Lavvas, P. P., Coustenis, A., and Vardavas, I. M. 2008b. Coupling Photochemistry with Haze Formation in Titan's Atmosphere, Part II: Results and Validation with Cassini/Huygens Data. Planet. Space Sci., 56(1), 67–99. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.05.027.Google Scholar

Lebonnois, S., Bakes, E. L. O., and McKay, C. P. 2002. Transition from Gaseous Compounds to Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 159, 505–517. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6943.Google Scholar

Liang, M.-C., Yung, Y. L., and Shemansky, D. E. 2007. Photolytically Generated Aerosols in the Mesosphere and Thermosphere of Titan. ApJ Lett., 661, L199–L202. doi:10.1086/518785.Google Scholar

López-Moreno, J. J., Molina-Cuberos, G. J., Hamelin, M., Grard, R., et al. 2008. Structure of Titan's Low Altitude Ionized Layer from the Relaxation Probe Onboard HUYGENS. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, 22104. doi:10.1029/2008GL035338.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., Lemmon, M. T., Smith, P. H., and Lockwood, G. W. 1999. Seasonal Change on Titan Observed with the Hubble Space Telescope WFPC-2. Icarus, 142, 391–401. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6225.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., Brown, M. E., and Flasar, F. M. 2009. Seasonal Change on Titan. Pages 353–372 of: Brown, R. H., Lebreton, J.-P., and Waite, J. H. (eds.), Titan from Cassini-Huygens. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9215-2_4.

Mayo, L. A., and Samuelson, R. E. 2005. Condensate Clouds in Titan's North Polar Stratosphere. Icarus, 176, 316–330. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005 .01.020.Google Scholar

McKay, C. P., Pollack, J. B., and Courtin, R. 1989. The Thermal Structure of Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 80, 23–53. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90160-7.Google Scholar

McKay, C. P., Coustenis, A., Samuelson, R. E., Lemmon, M. T., et al. 2001. Physical Properties of the Organic Aerosols and Clouds on Titan. Planet. Space Sci., 49, 79–99. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00051-9.Google Scholar

McKay, C. P., Pollack, J. B., and Courtin, R. 1991. The Greenhouse and Antigreenhouse Effects on Titan. Science, 253, 1118–1121. doi:10.1126/science.253.5024.1118.Google Scholar

Mebel, A. M., Kislov, V. V., and Kaiser, R. I. 2008. Photoinduced Mechanism of Formation and Growth of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Low-Temperature Environments via Successive Ethynyl Radical Additions. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130(41), 13618–13629. doi:10.1021/ja804198a.Google Scholar

Michael, M., Tripathi, S. N., Arya, P., Coates, A., et al. 2011. High-Altitude Charged Aerosols in the Atmosphere of Titan. Planet. Space Sci., 59, 880–885. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2011.03.010.Google Scholar

Moore, M. H., Ferrante, R. F., Moore, W. J., and Hudson, R. 2010. Infrared Spectra and Optical Constants of Nitrile Ices Relevant to Titan's Atmosphere. ApJS, 191, 96–112. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/191/1/96.Google Scholar

Penteado, P. F., Griffith, C. A., Tomasko, M. G., Engel, S., et al. 2010. Latitudinal Variations in Titan's Methane and Haze from Cassini VIMS Observations. Icarus, 206, 352–365. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.11.003.Google Scholar

Porco, C. C., Baker, E., Barbara, J., Beurle, K., et al. 2005. Imaging of Titan from the Cassini Spacecraft. Nature, 434, 159–168. doi:10.1038/nature03436.Google Scholar

Quirico, E., Montagnac, G., Lees, V, McMillan, P. F., et al. 2008. New Experimental Constraints on the Composition and Structure of Tholins. Icarus, 198, 218–231. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.07.012.Google Scholar

Rages, K., and Pollack, J. B. 1983. Vertical Distribution of Scattering Hazes in Titan's Upper Atmosphere. Icarus, 55, 50–62. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(83)90049-0.Google Scholar

Ramirez, S. I., Coll, P., da Silva, A., Navarro-Gonzalez, R., et al. 2002. Complex Refractive Index of Titan's Aerosol Analogues in the 200-900 nm Domain. Icarus, 156, 515–529. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6783.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., Cabane, M., Chassefiere, E., Botet, R., et al. 1995. Titan's Geometric Albedo: Role of the Fractal Structure of the Aerosols. Icarus, 118, 355–372. doi:10.1006/icar.1995.1196.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., McKay, C. P., Botet, R., and Cabane, M. 1999. Semi-Empirical Model of Absorption and Scattering by Isotropic Fractal Aggregates of Spheres. Planet. Space Sci., 47, 385–396. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00007-0.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., Hourdin, F., and McKay, C. P. 2002. A Wind Origin for Titan's Haze Structure. Nature, 418, 853–856.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., McKay, C. P., and Lorenz, R. D. 2003. A Model of Titan's Haze of Fractal Aerosols Constrained by Multiple Observations. Planet. Space Sci., 51, 963–976. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2003.05.008.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., Hourdin, F., McKay, C. P., and Luz, D. 2004. A Coupled Dynamics-Microphysics Model of Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 170, 443–462. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.03.007.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., Cours, T., Le Mouélic, S., Rodriguez, S., et al. 2010. Titan Haze Distribution and Optical Properties Retrieved from Recent Observations. Icarus, 208, 850–867. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.03.016.Google Scholar

Rannou, P., Cabane, M., Botet, R., and Chassefiere, E. 1997. A New Interpretation of Scattered Light Measurements at Titan's Limb. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 10997–11014. doi:10.1029/97JE00719.Google Scholar

Raulin, F., Frere, C., Do, L., Khlifi, M., et al. 1992. Organic Chemistry on Titan versus Terrestrial Prebiotic Chemistry: Exobiological Implications. Proceedings Symposium on Titan, Toulouse, France.

Ristein, J., Stief, R. T., Ley, L., and Beyer, W. 1998. A Comparative Analysis of a-C:H by Infrared Spectroscopy and Mass Selected Thermal Effusion. J. Appl. Phys., 84, 3836–3847. doi:10.1063/1.368563.Google Scholar

Roman, M. T., West, R. A., Banfield, D. J., Gierasch, P. J., et al. 2009. Determining a Tilt in Titan's North-South Albedo Asymmetry from Cassini Images. Icarus, 203, 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.04.021.Google Scholar

Sagan, C., and Thompson, W. R. 1984. Production and Condensation of Organic Gases in the Atmosphere of Titan. Icarus, 59, 133–161. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(84)90018-6.Google Scholar

Samuelson, R. E., and Mayo, L. A. 1991. Thermal Infrared Properties of Titan's Stratospheric Aerosol. Icarus, 91, 207–219. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(91)90019-P.Google Scholar

Samuelson, R. E., Mayo, L. A., Knuckles, M. A., and Khanna, R. J. 1997. C4N2 Ice in Titan's North Polar Stratosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 45, 941–948. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(97)00088-3.Google Scholar

Samuelson, R. E., Smith, M. D., Achterberg, R. K., and Pearl, J. C. 2007. Cassini CIRS Update on Stratospheric Ices at Titan's Winter Pole. Icarus, 189, 63–71. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.02.005.Google Scholar

Scattergood, T. W., Lau, E. Y., and Stone, B. M. 1992. Titan's Aerosols. I – Laboratory Investigations of Shapes, Size Distributions, and Aggregation of Particles Produced by UV Photolysis of Model Titan Atmospheres. Icarus, 99, 98–105. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(92)90174-6.Google Scholar

Sciamma-O'Brien, E., Dahoo, P.-R., Hadamcik, E., Carrasco, N., et al. 2012. Optical constants from 370 nm to 900 nm of Titan Tholins Produced in a Low Pressure RF Plasma Discharge. Icarus, 218 (Mar.), 356–363. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.12.014.Google Scholar

Sekine, Y., Imanaka, H., Matsui, T., et al. 2008a. The Role of Organic Haze in Titan's Atmospheric Chemistry: I. Laboratory Investigation on Heterogeneous Reaction of Atomic Hydrogen with Titan Tholin. Icarus, 186–200.Google Scholar

Sekine, Y., Lebonnois, S., Imanaka, H., Matsui, T., et al. 2008b. The Role of Organic Haze in Titan's Atmospheric Chemistry: II. Effect of Heterogeneous Reaction to the Hydrogen Budget and Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere. Icarus, 201–211.Google Scholar

Sicardy, B., Ferri, F., Roques, F., Lecacheux, J., et al. 1999. The Structure of Titan's Stratosphere from the 28 Sgr Occultation. Icarus, 142, 357–390. doi:10.1006/icar.1999.6219.Google Scholar

Sicardy, B., Colas, F., Widemann, T., Bellucci, A., et al. 2006. The Two Titan Stellar Occultations of 14 November 2003. J. Geophys. Res. (Planets), 111, E11S91. doi:10.1029/2005JE002624.Google Scholar

Skorov, Yu. V, Keller, H. U., and Rodin, A. V 2010. Optical Properties of Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere: Large Fluffy Aggregates. Planet. Space Sci., 58 (Dec), 1802–1810. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2010.08.002.Google Scholar

Sromovsky, L. A., Suomi, V. E., Pollack, J. B., Krauss, R. J., et al. 1981. Implications of Titan's North-South Brightness Asymmetry. Nature, 292, 698–702. doi:10.1038/292698a0.Google Scholar

Szopa, C., Cernogora, G., Boufendi, L., Correia, J. J., et al. 2006. PAMPRE: A Dusty Plasma Experiment for Titan's Tholins Production and Study. Planetary and Space Science, 54, 394–404. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2005.12.012.Google Scholar

Teanby, N. A., Irwin, P. G. J., de Kok, R., Vinatier, S., et al. 2007. Vertical Profiles of HCN, HC3N, and C2H2 in Titan's Atmosphere Derived from Cassini/CIRS data. Icarus, 186, 364–384. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.024.Google Scholar

Thomas-Osip, J. E., Gustafson, B. A. S., Kolokolova, L., and Xu, Y.-L. 2005. An Investigation of Titan's Aerosols Using Microwave Analog Measurements and Radiative Transfer Modeling. Icarus, 179, 511–522. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.06.017.Google Scholar

Tokano, T., Neubauer, F. M., Laube, M., and McKay, C. P. 1999. Seasonal Variation of Titan's Atmospheric Structure Simulated by a General Circulation Model. Planet. Space. Sci., 47, 493–520. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00011-2.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., and Smith, P. H. 1982. Photometry and Polarimetry of Titan – Pioneer 11 Observations and Their Implications for Aerosol Properties. Icarus, 51, 65–95. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(82)90030-6.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., and West, R. A. 2009. Aerosols in Titan's Atmosphere. Pages 297–322 of Brown, R. H., Lebreton, J.-P., and Waite, J. H. (eds.), Titan from Cassini-Huygens. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9215-2.

Tomasko, M. G., Buchhauser, D., Bushroe, M., Dafoe, L. E., et al. 2002. The Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR) Experiment on the Huygens Entry Probe of Titan. Space Sci. Rev., 104, 469–551. doi:10.1023/A:1023632422098.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., Archinal, B., Becker, T., Bézard, B., et al. 2005. Rain, Winds and Haze During the Huygens Probe's Descent to Titan's Surface. Nature, 438, 765–778. doi:10.1038/nature04126.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., Doose, L., Engel, S., Dafoe, L. E., et al. 2008a. A Model of Titan's Aerosols Based on Measurements Made Inside the Atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 669–707. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.11.019.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., Bézard, B., Doose, L., Engel, S., et al. 2008b. Heat Balance in Titan's Atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 648–659. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.10.012.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., Bézard, B., Doose, L., Engel, S., et al. 2008. Measurements of Methane Absorption by the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR) during Its Descent through Titan's Atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 624–647. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2007.10.009.Google Scholar

Tomasko, M. G., Doose, L. R., Dafoe, L. E., and See, C. 2009. Limits on the Size of Aerosols from Measurements of Linear Polarization in Titan's Atmosphere. Icarus, 204, 271–283. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.05.034.Google Scholar

Toon, O. B., Turco, R. P., and Pollack, J. B. 1980. A Physical Model of Titan's Clouds. Icarus, 43, 260–282. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(80)90173-6.Google Scholar

Toon, O. B., McKay, C. P., Griffith, C. A., and Turco, R. P. 1992. A Physical Model of Titan's Aerosols. Icarus, 95, 24–53. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(92)90188-D.Google Scholar

Trainer, M. G., Pavlov, A. A., Dewitt, H. L., Jimenez, J. L., et al. 2006. Inaugural Article: Organic Haze on Titan and the Early Earth. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1031, 18035–18042. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608561103.Google Scholar

Tran, B. N., Joseph, J. C., Ferris, J. P., Persans, P. D., et al. 2003. Simulation of Titan Haze Formation Using a Photochemical Flow Reactor: The Optical Constants of the Polymer. Icarus, 165, 379–390. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00209-4.Google Scholar

Vinatier, S., Bézard, B., Nixon, C. A., Mamoutkine, A., et al. 2010a. Analysis of Cassini/CIRS Limb Spectra of Titan Acquired during the Nominal Mission. I. Hydrocarbons, Nitriles and CO2 Vertical Mixing Ratio Profiles. Icarus, 205, 559–570. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.08.013.Google Scholar

Vinatier, S., Bézard, B., de Kok, R., Anderson, C. M., et al. 2010b. Analysis of Cassini/CIRS Limb Spectra of Titan Acquired during the Nominal Mission II: Aerosol Extinction Profiles in the 600-1420 cm-1 Spectral Range. Icarus, 210, 852–866. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.06.024.Google Scholar

Vinatier, S., Rannou, P., Anderson, C. M., Bézard, B., et al. 2012. Optical Constants of Titan's Stratospheric Aerosol in the 70-1500 cm-1 spectral range constrained from Cassini/CIRS observations. Icarus, 219, 5–12. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.02.009.Google Scholar

Vuitton, V, Yelle, R. V, and Cui, J. 2008. Formation and Distribution of Benzene on Titan. J. Geophys. Res., 113, 05007. doi:10.1029/2007JE002997.Google Scholar

Vuitton, V, Tran, B. N., Persans, P. D., and Ferris, J. P. 2009. Determination of the Complex Refractive Indices of Titan Haze Analogs Using Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy. Icarus, 203, 663–671. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.04.016.Google Scholar

Wahlund, J.-E., Galand, M., Müller-Wodarg, I., Cui, J., et al. 2009. On the Amount of Heavy Molecular Ions in Titan's Ionosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 57, 1857–1865. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.07.014.Google Scholar

Waite, J. H., Young, D. T., Cravens, T. E., Coates, A. J., et al. 2007. The Process of Tholin Formation in Titan's Upper Atmosphere. Science, 316, 870–875. doi:10.1126/science.1139727.Google Scholar

West, R. A., and Smith, P. H. 1991. Evidence for Aggregate Particles in the Atmospheres of Titan and Jupiter. Icarus, 90, 330–333. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(91)90113-8.Google Scholar

West, R. A., Balloch, J., Dumont, P., Lavvas, P., et al. 2011. The Evolution of Titan's Detached Haze Layer Near Equinox in 2009. Geophys. Res. Lett., 380, L06204. doi:10.1029/2011GL046843.Google Scholar

Whitten, R. C, Borucki, W. J, and Tripathi, S. 2007. Predictions of the Electrical Conductivity and Charging of the Aerosols in Titan's Night Time Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 112, E04001. doi:10.1029/2006JE002788.Google Scholar

Williams, M. W., Arakawa, E. T., and Inagaki, T. 1991. Optical and Dielectric Properties of Materials Relevant to Biological Research. Pages 95–145 of Ebashi, S., Koch, M., and Rubenstein, E. (eds.), Handbook on Synchrotron Radiation, vol. 4. Elsevier Science Publishers.

Wilson, E. H, and Atreya, S. K. 2003. Chemical Sources of Haze Formation in Titan's Atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 51, 1017–1033. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2003.06.003.Google Scholar

Yung, Y. L, Allen, M, and Pinto, J. P. 1984. Photochemistry of the Atmosphere of Titan – Comparison between Model and Observations. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Series, 55, 465–506. doi:10.1086/190963.Google Scholar

Zhou, L., Zheng, W., Kaiser, R. I., Landera, A., et al. 2010. Cosmic-Ray-Mediated Formation of Benzene on the Surface of Saturn's Moon Titan. Astrophys. J., 718, 1243–1251. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/718/2/1243.Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.