Infectious gastroenteritis is a common illness in Australia as elsewhere. Data from a year-long national gastroenteritis survey in 2001–2002 showed that gastroenteritis was more common in the northern and hotter part of Australia. These data were used to quantify associations between local weather variables and gastroenteritis in people aged >5 years while controlling for socioeconomic status. A distributed lag model was used to examine the influence of weather over a period of days prior to an event and the maximal effect was found at a lag of 2–5 days. The total effect over the preceding week indicated a relative increase from baseline in the probability of gastroenteritis of 2·48% (95% CI 1·01–3·97) for each degree rise (°C) over that period. Given the very high burden of gastroenteritis, this represents a substantial effect at the population level and has relevance for health predictions due to climate change.

Shenzhen is one of the largest migratory metropolitan cities in China. A standardized influenza surveillance system has been operating in Shenzhen for several years. The objectives of the present study were to describe the epidemiology of influenza in Shenzhen and to assess the impact of pandemic H1N1 on influenza activity. An average rate of 71 cases of influenza-like illness (ILI)/1000 consultations was reported, which was greater than the rate in the preceding 3 years. Laboratory surveillance showed that the annual proportion of specimens positive for influenza was 25·4% in 2009, representing a significant increase over the proportions of 5·4%, 11·6% and 12·2% in 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. A total of 414 ILI outbreaks were reported in 2009, which was a marked increase compared to the previous 3 years. Influenza activity reached a record high in Shenzhen in 2009. Seasonal A/H3N2 was the dominant strain during the summer and was gradually replaced by pandemic H1N1. A semi-annual cycle for influenza circulation began to appear due to the emergence of pandemic H1N1.

The study's objectives were to investigate the prevalence, incidence, persistence, and associated risk factors of syphilis in female sex workers (FSWs) in Kaiyuan City, Yunnan, China. Three serial cross-sectional surveys were conducted and biological specimens were collected and tested for HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and drug use. The logistic Generalized Estimating Equation regression model was used to identify risk factors for prevalent syphilis. The prevalence of syphilis was 7·5%, 8·4% and 8·8%, respectively, in the three survey periods. Estimated syphilis incidence was 1·07 cases/100 person-years, and the persistence of syphilis per person at 6 months was 90·4%. In multivariate analysis, the factors associated with syphilis were age, lower education level, number of clients in a week, inconsistent condom use with clients, herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), and Chlamydia trachomatis. Persistent syphilis in this population of FSWs is a serious public health concern.

The aim of this study was to identify the sources of sporadic domestic Salmonella cases in Sweden and to evaluate the usefulness of a source-attribution model in a country in which food animals are virtually free from Salmonella. The model allocates human sporadic domestic Salmonella cases to different sources according to distribution of Salmonella subtypes in the different sources. Sporadic domestic human Salmonella cases (n=1086) reported between July 2004 and June 2006 were attributed to nine food-animal and wildlife sources. Of all Salmonella cases, 82% were acquired abroad and 2·9% were associated with outbreaks. We estimated that 6·4% were associated with imported food, 0·5% with food-producing animals, and 0·6% with wildlife. Overall, 7·7% could not be attributed to any source. We concluded that domestic food-producing animals are not an important source for Salmonella in humans in Sweden, and that the adapted model is useful also in low-prevalence countries.

During Easter 2009, almost 200 people resident in a small Swedish village fell ill with gastrointestinal symptoms. We conducted a retrospective cohort study and a molecular investigation in order to identify the source of the outbreak. Residents living in households connected to the public water network were at an increased risk of developing disease (relative risk 4·80, 95% confidence interval 1·68–13·73) compared to those with no connection to the public network. Norovirus genotype GI.3 was identified in stool samples from six patients and in a sample from the public water network. Contamination of one of the wells supplying the public water network was thought to be the source of the outbreak. This is a description of a norovirus outbreak linked to a municipal drinking-water supply in Sweden. Information from epidemiological and molecular investigations is of utmost importance to guide outbreak control measures and to prevent future outbreaks.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) bacteria can cause outbreaks and sporadic cases of gastroenteritis in humans. Ruminants are seen as the main reservoir. The aim of this study was to evaluate the spatial association between reported human STEC O157 infections in The Netherlands and different livestock densities. Data were collected at the municipality level and a spatial regression analysis was performed. Between April 1999 and December 2008, 409 symptomatic sporadic cases were registered. Adding an interaction term between season, age, and livestock density showed an increased risk of STEC cases in summer for living in areas with cattle, in particular for young children. In conclusion, cattle, but not pigs or poultry, are indicated as an important source for human STEC O157 infections in rural areas. The association is probably due to direct or indirect contact with cattle, resulting in symptomatic infections, especially in young children.

A cross-sectional study on 32 different Belgian broiler farms was performed in 2007 and 2008 to identify risk factors for ceftiofur resistance in Escherichia coli. On each farm, one E. coli colony was isolated from 30 random birds. Following susceptibility testing of 14 antimicrobials, an on-farm questionnaire was used to obtain information on risk factors. Using a multilevel logistic regression model two factors were identified at the animal level: resistance to amoxicillin and to trimethoprim–sulfonamide. On the farm level, besides antimicrobial use, seven management factors were found to be associated with the occurrence of ceftiofur resistance in E. coli from broilers: poor hygienic condition of the medicinal treatment reservoir, no acidification of drinking water, more than three feed changes during the production cycle, hatchery of origin, breed, litter material used, and treatment with amoxicillin. This study confirms that not only on-farm antimicrobial therapy, but also management- and hatchery-related factors influence the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance.

Despite the adoption of strategies to prevent and treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) over the past decade, Latvia continues to have one of the highest rates of MDR-TB in the world. It is important to identify modifiable factors that may impact on MDR-TB patient outcomes. A study was conducted to elucidate the association between nutritional status and clinical presentation, clinical course, and mortality in 995 adult patients treated for MDR-TB from 2000 to 2004. Twenty percent of patients were underweight, defined as a body mass index <18·5, at the time of diagnosis. These patients were significantly more likely to have clinical evidence of advanced disease, and had a greater risk of experiencing ⩾3 side-effects [adjusted odds ratio 1·5, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·1–2·1] and death (adjusted hazard ratio 1·9, 95% CI 1·1–3·5) compared to patients who were normal or overweight. Interventions aimed at these high-risk patients, including nutritional supplementation as an adjunct to anti-TB therapy, should be considered and evaluated by TB programmes.

The incidence of bacteraemia has increased considerably during the last decades. This may be related to population ageing, increased use of invasive procedures, and increased ascertainment of bacteraemia. Generalized additive and generalized linear models were used to analyse the impact of four successive improvements in blood culture methodology on the recovery of prevalent blood culture isolates while simultaneously controlling for underlying time trend and seasonal variation. Between 1981 and 2006, 20 091 bacteraemias comprising 22 800 blood culture isolates were diagnosed. The changes in methodology increased the recovery of some bacterial groups; the greatest impact was observed for Enterobacteriaceae, pneumococci and Staphylococcus aureus whereas recovery of β-haemolytic streptococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, other Gram-negative aerobes, and fungi was not affected. Changes in blood culture methodology should be taken into account when assessing time trends of bacteraemia.

The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical, microbiological, and pathological characteristics and the outcomes of skin and soft-tissue infection (SSTI) caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). Medical records of 50 patients with SSTI caused by NTM identified from 2005 to 2008 and 63 patients previously reported in a medical centre from 1997 to 2004 were reviewed. The annual incidence (per 100 000 outpatients and in-patients) ranged from 0·57 in 2005, 0·38 in 2007, to 1·1 in 2008, with an average of 0·62/100 000. From 1997 to 2008, the average incidence was 1·39/100 000 patients. The average annual incidence of SSTI caused by NTM was 0·62/100 000 outpatients and in-patients during 2005 and 2008. Of the total of 113 patients identified during the 12-year period, patients infected with Mycobacterium fortuitum and M. marinum were younger than those infected with M. avium-intracellulare complex (MAC) (36 and 44 years vs. 55 years, P=0·004 and P=0·056, respectively), and were more likely to have previous invasive procedures than those infected with MAC and M. abscessus (81·8% and 72·0% vs. 27·8% and 54·8%, P=0·007), and less likely to have associated immunosuppression (9·1% and 24% vs. 66·7% and 45·2%, P=0·006). Granuloma was more often observed in immunocompetent patients (60·1% vs. 40%, P=0·019), and in M. marinum-infected specimens (78·3%). There were significant differences in the demographic and clinical features of patients with NTM SSTI, including immunosuppression, trauma experience, and depth of tissue infections.

Ventilator-associated pneumonias (VAPs) are a worldwide problem that significantly increases patient morbidity, mortality, and length of stay (LoS), and their effects should be estimated to account for the timing of infection. The purpose of the study was to estimate extra LoS and mortality in an intensive-care unit (ICU) due to a VAP in a cohort of 69 248 admissions followed for 283 069 days in ICUs from 10 countries. Data were arranged according to the multi-state format. Extra LoS and increased risk of death were estimated independently in each country, and their results were combined using a random-effects meta-analysis. VAP prolonged LoS by an average of 2·03 days (95% CI 1·52–2·54 days), and increased the risk of death by 14% (95% CI 2–27). The increased risk of death due to VAP was explained by confounding with patient morbidity.

Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) serotype O157:H7 strains from a Swedish cattle prevalence study (n=32), and livestock-derived strains linked to human disease (n=13), were characterized by microarray and PCR detection of virulence genes. The overall aim of the study was to investigate the distribution of known virulence determinants and determine which genes are linked to increased pathogenicity in humans. A core set of 18 genes or gene variants were found in all strains, while seven genes were variably present. This suggests that the majority of VTEC O157:H7 found in Swedish cattle carry a broad repertoire of virulence genes and should be considered potentially harmful to humans. A single virulence gene type was significantly associated with strains linked to human disease cases (P=0·012), but no genetic trait to explain the increased virulence of this genotype could be found.

Suppurative methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin infections are common and associated with MRSA colonization, but little is known about non-suppurative cellulitis and its relationship with MRSA colonization in areas endemic for community-associated MRSA. We prospectively enrolled patients hospitalized for non-suppurative cellulitis (n=50) and matched controls (n=100) and found S. aureus colonization was similar in cases and controls (30% vs. 25%, P=0·95). MRSA was uncommon in cases (6%) and controls (3%) (P=0·39). All MRSA isolates were USA300 by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Independent risk factors for non-suppurative cellulitis were diabetes (OR 3·5, 95% CI 1·4–8·9, P=0·01) and homelessness in the previous year (OR 6·4, 95% CI 1·9–20·9, P=0·002). These findings suggest that MRSA may only rarely be causative of non-suppurative cellulitis.

To identify the epidemiological and genetic characteristics of norovirus (NoV) outbreaks and estimate the impact of NoV infections in an older population, we analysed epidemiological and laboratory data collected using standardized methods from long-term care facilities (LTCFs) during 2003–2006. Faecal specimens were tested for NoV by real-time reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction. NoV strains were genotyped by sequencing. Of the 234 acute gastroenteritis (AGE) outbreaks reported, 163 (70%) were caused by NoV. The annual attack rate of outbreak-associated NoV infection in LTCF residents was 4%, with a case-hospitalization rate of 3·1% and a case-fatality rate of 0·5%. GII.4 strains accounted for 84% of NoV outbreaks. Median duration of illness was longer for GII.4 infections than non-GII.4 infections (33 vs. 24 h, P<0·001). Emerging GII.4 strains (Hunter/2004, Minerva/2006b, Terneuzen/2006a) gradually replaced the previously dominant strain (Farmington Hills/2002) during 2004–2006. NoV GII.4 strains are now associated with the majority of AGE outbreaks in LTCFs and prolonged illness in Oregon.

Uncertainties exist regarding the population risks of hospitalization due to pandemic influenza A(H1N1). Understanding these risks is important for patients, clinicians and policy makers. This study aimed to clarify these uncertainties. A national surveillance system was established for patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed pandemic influenza A(H1N1) in England. Information was captured on demographics, pre-existing conditions, treatment and outcomes. The relative risks of hospitalization associated with pre-existing conditions were estimated by combining the captured data with population prevalence estimates. A total of 2416 hospitalizations were reported up to 6 January 2010. Within the population, 4·7 people/100 000 were hospitalized with pandemic influenza A(H1N1). The estimated hospitalization rate of cases showed a U-shaped distribution with age. Chronic kidney disease, chronic neurological disease, chronic respiratory disease and immunosuppression were each associated with a 10- to 20-fold increased risk of hospitalization. Patients who received antiviral medication within 48 h of symptom onset were less likely to be admitted to critical care than those who received them after this time (adjusted odds ratio 0·64, 95% confidence interval 0·44–0·94, P=0·024). In England the risk of hospitalization with pandemic influenza A(H1N1) has been concentrated in the young and those with pre-existing conditions. By quantifying these risks, this study will prove useful in planning for the next winter in the northern and southern hemispheres, and for future pandemics.

Port Blair, the capital city of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the republic of India, witnessed an outbreak of chikungunya (CHIK) fever in 2006. Although no deaths attributable to CHIK fever were registered, thousands of people were affected. In view of evidence from other parts of the world indicating that CHIK fever does cause death we studied the mortality trend in Port Blair from 2002 to 2008 in order to verify if there was increased mortality during the CHIK fever epidemic. The expected number of monthly deaths in 2006 was calculated by multiplying the average monthly mortality rate from 2002 to 2008 (with the exception of 2006) with the monthly population in 2006. The results indicated that there was a significant increase in expected deaths during some months of 2006, which coincided with the peak in the CHIK fever epidemic in Port Blair.

This paper describes morbidity and mortality parameters for Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Listeria spp., norovirus infections and their primary associated sequelae [Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), haemolytic uraemic syndrome, reactive arthropathies and Reiter's syndrome]. Data from a period of 4 years were obtained from three national databases to estimate percentage of reported cases hospitalized, mean annual hospitalization incidence rate, frequency of hospitalization by age and sex, and number of deaths. The length of hospital stay, discharge disposition, hospitalization age, and number of diagnoses per case were also extracted and summarized. In addition, we estimated that each year in Canada, there are between 126 and 251 cases of Campylobacter-associated GBS. This study provides morbidity and mortality estimates for the top enteric pathogens in Canada, including their associated sequelae, which can contribute to the quantification of the burden of illness.

We studied changes in species distribution and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Shigella during 1980–2008, using the Diarrhoeal Diseases Surveillance system of Dhaka Hospital of ICDDR,B. In hospitalized patients Shigella prevalence decreased steadily from 8–12% in the 1980s to 3% in 2008. Endemic S. flexneri was the most commonly isolated species (54%). Epidemic S. dysenteriae type 1 had two peaks in 1984 and 1993, but was not found after 2000, except for one case in 2004. The therapeutic options are now limited: in 2008 a total of 33% of S. flexneri were resistant to ciprofloxacin and 57% to mecillinam. In the <5 years age group, severely underweight, wasted and stunted children were more at risk of shigellosis compared to well-nourished children (P<0·001). Although hospitalization for Shigella diarrhoea is decreasing, the high levels of antimicrobial resistance and increased susceptibility of malnourished children continue to pose an ongoing risk.

In December 2008 an increase of tetracycline-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium definitive phage-type 191a (DT191a) was identified in England and Wales by the reference laboratory. This was confirmed to have a phage-typing pattern that had not previously been seen. Strong statistical evidence for an association between illness and keeping reptiles was demonstrated by a matched case-case study (mOR 16·82, 95% CI 2·78–∞). Questionnaires revealed an association with frozen reptile feeder mice, and mice representing 80% of the UK supply lines were tested for the presence of Salmonella. DT191a was found in three pools of sampled mice, which were traced back to a single supplier in the USA. Imports from this supplier were halted, and tighter regulations are now in place. A leaflet detailing how to prevent contracting Salmonella from pet reptiles has been published as well as updated advice on the Health Protection Agency's website.

In March 2008, the Health Protection Agency in England conducted a retrospective case-control study to investigate the cause of 179 cases of the newly recognized, fully antimicrobial-sensitive Salmonella Typhimurium PT U320. Forty-three symptomatic laboratory-confirmed case-patients and 84 asymptomatic location-matched controls were interviewed by telephone about exposures in the 3 days prior to illness or interview. Multivariate logistic analysis indicated consumption of pre-packaged egg sandwiches (odds ratio 3·29, 95% confidence interval 1·19–9·09) was independently associated with illness. Eight of the 15 case-patients who consumed egg sandwiches did so from retail chain A (53·3%) whereas none of the eight controls consumed similar sandwiches (χ2=7·20, P⩽0·01). A review of the pre-packaged egg sandwich ingredients suggested this outbreak was probably caused by exposure to an ingredient common to pre-packaged sandwiches and prepared salads but we established a definitive epidemiological link with only the former. Short shelf-life, product diversity and investigation lag hinder epidemiological investigations of such popular products, providing continued challenges for food safety enforcement of freshly prepared produce.