To determine the effect of routine intravenous (IV) administration set changes on central venous catheter (CVC) colonization and catheter-related bacteremia.

Prospective, randomized, controlled trial.

Eighteen-bed intensive care unit (ICU) in a large metropolitan hospital.

Two hundred fifty-one patients with 404 chlorhexidine gluconate and silver sulfadiazine–coated multilumen CVCs.

CVCs inserted in the ICU and in situ on day 4 were randomized to have their IV administration sets changed on day 4 (n = 203) or not at all (n = 201). Use of fluid containers and blood product administration sets was limited to 24 hours. CVCs were removed when not required, infection was suspected, or in place on day 7. Catheter cultures were performed on removal by blinded laboratory staff. Catheter-related bacteremia was diagnosed by a blinded intensivist using strict definitions. Data were collected regarding catheter duration, site, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score, patient age, diagnosis, hyperglycemia, hypoalbuminemia, immune status, number of fluid containers and IV injections, and administration of propofol, blood, total parenteral nutrition, or lipid infusion.

There were 10 colonized CVCs in the group receiving a set change and 19 in the group not receiving one. This difference was not statistically significant on Kaplan–Meier survival analysis. There were 3 cases of catheter-related bacteremia per group. Logistic regression found that burns diagnosis and increased ICU stay significantly predicted colonization.

IV administration sets can be used for 7 days in patients with short-term, antiseptic-coated CVCs.

To evaluate the usefulness of screening cultures in the control of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in intensive care units (ICUs).

A 4-year retrospective study.

Two adult ICUs of a university-affiliated public hospital in France.

A total of 7,777 specimens were analyzed and 28 (0.97%) of 2,883 screened patients had a positive result on a screening test, among the 3,678 admitted patients. Thirteen of these 28 patients were only carriers; 4 were carriers and then were colonized or infected 2, 2, 3, and 8 days later, respectively; and 11 were colonized or infected before a screening test was positive. Cluster analysis showed that the occurrence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae cross-transmission within both ICUs was limited to 9 cases. Thus, most cases (19 of 28) were probably imported. Surveillance cultures failed to detect 9 of the 19 cases.

The low prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae carriers on admission (0.45%) and the relative ineffectiveness of our screening test to detect imported cases suggest that systematic detection of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in ICU patients is not cost-effective and that the use of clinical cultures may be sufficient to control ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in non-epidemic situations.

To determine the impact of stool surveillance cultures of critically ill patients on controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) outbreak bacteremia.

Stool surveillance cultures were performed on patients who had hematologic malignancy or were critically ill at the time of hospital admission to identify those colonized with VRE. Hence, contact isolation was initiated.

A tertiary-care cancer center with a high prevalence of VRE.

All patients with hematologic malignancy who were admitted to the hospital as well as all of those admitted to the intensive care unit were eligible.

Active stool surveillance cultures performed between 1997 and 2001 decreased the incidence density of VRE bacteremias eightfold while vancomycin use remained constant. In fiscal year (FY) 1997 and FY 1998, there were five and three VRE outbreak bacteremias, respectively. The outbreak clones were responsible for infection in 69% of those patients with VRE bacteremia. However, the stool surveillance program resulted in the complete control of VRE bacteremia by FY 1999 until the end of the study.

Despite the steady use of vancomycin, the active surveillance program among high-risk patients with hematologic malignancy and those who were critically ill resulted in the complete control of VRE outbreak bacteremia at our institution.

To evaluate the effects of a hand hygiene program on compliance with hand hygiene and the rate of nosocomial infections in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

Open trial.

A level-III NICU in a teaching hospital.

Nurses, physicians, and other healthcare workers in the NICU.

A multimodal campaign for hand hygiene promotion was conducted beginning in September 1998. This program consisted of formal lectures, written instructions and posted reminders regarding hand hygiene and proper handwashing techniques, covert observation, financial incentives, and regular group feedback on compliance. Surveillance of handwashing compliance and nosocomial infections before and during the program was analyzed.

Overall compliance with hand hygiene improved from 43% at baseline to 80% during the promotion program. The rate of nosocomial infections decreased from 15.13 to 10.69 per 1,000 patient-days (P = .003) with improved handwashing compliance. In particular, respiratory tract infections decreased from 3.35 to 1.06 per 1,000 patient-days during the handwashing campaign (P = .002). Furthermore, the correlation between nosocomial infection of the respiratory tract and handwashing compliance also reached statistical significance (r = -0.385; P = .014).

Improved compliance with handwashing was associated with a significant decrease in overall rates of nosocomial infection and respiratory infections in particular. Washing hands is a simple, economical, and effective method for preventing nosocomial infections in the NICU

To evaluate infection control knowledge and practices, provide training on universal-standard precautions (USP), and improve infection control knowledge and practices among dentists.

Private and public dental offices in Vâlcea, Romania.

Information about the use of hepatitis B vaccine, knowledge of and training in USP, perceived risks of disease transmission, and infection control practices was gathered from a sample of dentists through interviews, direct observations, and a survey administered during a training session.

Interviews among dentists and direct observations of infection control practices revealed that resources were often scarce in public clinics; however, availability of supplies in private or public clinics often did not correlate with adherence to proper infection control. Of 125 registered dentists, 46 (37%) attended the session and completed the survey. Of these, 75% worked in public clinics, 40% in private practices, and a few in both. More than 50% believed that the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) was low in their patients compared with the Romanian population. Only 26% of dentists had received hepatitis B vaccine. Dentists reported a mean of six percutaneous injuries a year. Most (89%) reported that gloves were effective in preventing HBV transmission; 24% wore them for every patient. Most used dry heat sterilization; however, chemical disinfectants were also used.

Resources were limited, receipt of hepatitis vaccine was low, and infection control knowledge and practices varied. Training and education are needed regarding the importance of USP, hepatitis B vaccination, and alternative practices when resources are insufficient.

To rapidly establish a temporary isolation ward to handle an unexpected sudden outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and to evaluate the implementation of exposure control measures by healthcare workers (HCWs) for SARS patients.

Rapid creation of 60 relatively negative pressure isolation rooms for 196 suspected SARS patients transferred from 19 hospitals and daily temperature recordings of 180 volunteer HCWs from 6 medical centers.

A military hospital.

Of the 196 patients, 34 (17.3%) met the World Health Organization criteria for probable SARS with positive results of serologic testing for SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from nasopharyngeal or throat swabs for SARS-CoV, or both. Seventy-four patients had suspected SARS based on unprotected exposure to SARS patients; three of them had positive results on RT-PCR but negative serologic results. The remaining 88 patients did not meet the criteria for a probable or suspected SARS diagnosis. Of the 34 patients with probable SARS, 13 were transferred to medical centers to receive mechanical ventilation due to rapid deterioration of chest x-ray results, and three patients died of SARS despite intensive therapy in medical centers. During the study period, one nurse developed probable SARS due to violation of infection control measures, but there was no evidence of cross-transmission to other HCWs.

Despite the use of full personal protection equipment, the facility failed to totally prevent exposures of HCWs to SARS but minimized the risk of nosocomial transmission. Better training and improvements in infection control infrastructure may limit the impact of SARS.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published a new guideline on hand hygiene promoting the use of the alcohol-based handrub, but the technique was not addressed. The goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of technique on the efficacy of the alcohol-based handrub.

Healthcare workers (HCWs) attending a course in hospital epidemiology.

A fluorescent dye was added to a hand antiseptic, and hands were checked under ultraviolet light after antiseptic cleansing. Data regarding the numbers of predefined fluorescent areas on the skin were collected in addition to demographic data such as age, gender, job description, and job experience. Results of the visualization test were compared with the data from microbiological samples before and after the procedure by the hand plate technique.

Sixty HCWs were tested, 63% of whom had worked in infection control for more than 10 years. Sixty-six percent of all participants still had detectable bacteria after antisepsis. The mean log10 CFU reduction was 2.0 (range, 0–3.85). Twenty-five percent of all HCWs achieved less than 1.1 log10 CFU. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from 13% (one of them being methicillin resistant) and gram-negative bacilli from 6.7%. After using the alcohol handrub, one subject still remained positive for S. aureus. Years of experience was the single most important factor predicting antimicrobial efficacy.

Technique is of crucial importance in hand antisepsis. Major deficiencies were detected among even highly trained HCWs. Training should be provided before switching from handwashing to the alcohol handrub.

To examine the impact of surgical-site infection (SSI) due to Staphylococcus aureus on mortality, duration of hospitalization, and hospital charges among elderly surgical patients and the impact of older age on these outcomes by comparing older and younger patients with S. aureus SSI.

A nested cohort study.

A 750-bed, tertiary-care hospital and a 350-bed community hospital.

Ninety-six elderly patients (70 years and older) with S. aureus SSI were compared with 2 reference groups: 59 uninfected elderly patients and 131 younger patients with S. aureus SSI.

Compared with uninfected elderly patients, elderly patients with S. aureus SSI were at risk for increased mortality (odds ratio [OR], 5.4; 95% confidence interval [CI95], 1.5-20.1), postoperative hospital-days (2.5-fold increase; CI95, 2.0-3.1), and hospital charges (2.0-fold increase; CI95, 1.7-2.4; $41,117 mean attributable charges per SSI). Compared with younger patients with S. aureus SSI, elderly patients had increased mortality (adjusted OR, 2.9; CI95, 1.1-7.6), hospital-days (9 vs 13 days; P = .001), and median hospital charges ($45,767 vs $85,648; P < .001).

Among elderly surgical patients, S. aureus SSI was independently associated with increased mortality, hospital-days, and cost. In addition, being at least 70 years old was a predictor of death in patients with S. aureus SSI.

To identify the independent predictors of nosocomial bloodstream infections (BSIs) among critically ill adult trauma patients.

A prospective, cohort design was used to study patients who met predetermined inclusion criteria. Basic descriptive and univariate statistical analyses were performed to identify unadjusted predictors. A forward stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis was then conducted to identify independent predictors of nosocomial BSI.

Level I university-affiliated shock trauma center.

Three hundred sixty-one critically ill adult trauma patients, 55 of whom developed nosocomial BSIs (15.2%).

Data analysis of 45 variables indicated that only 9 were independent predictors of nosocomial BSI: presence of a chest tube, use of immunosuppressive agents, presence of microbial resistance, length of stay, presence of preexisting infection, percentage change of serum albumin levels, patient disposition, transfusion of 10 or more units of blood, and number of central venous catheters (CVCs) for patients who had 4 or more. The classification index of the final regression model at a cut-off point of 0.5 had a specificity of 97.4%, a sensitivity of 60%, a positive predictive value of 76.7%, a negative predictive value of 93%, and an overall precision of 91%.

In this study, only 9 variables were independent predictors of nosocomial BSI. Our findings are specific to critically ill adult trauma patients and should be interpreted within the context of this particular population.

Although reports of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections without healthcare exposure are increasing, population-based data regarding nasal colonization are lacking. We assessed the prevalence of and risk factors for community-associated MRSA nasal carriage in patients of a rural outpatient clinic.

A cross-sectional population survey was conducted through random sample and stratification by community of residence. Recent healthcare exposure (ie, hospitalization, dialysis, or healthcare occupation) and other risk factors for MRSA carriage were assessed. Cultures of the nares were performed. Community-associated MRSA was defined as MRSA carriage without healthcare exposure.

A predominantly American Indian community in Washington.

Those receiving healthcare from an Indian Health Service clinic.

Of 1,311 individuals identified for study, 475 (36%) participated. Unsatisfactory culture specimens resulted in exclusion of 6 participants. In all, 128 (27.3%) of 469 participants had S. aureus. Nine (1.9%) of 469 had MRSA carriage; of these, 5 had community-associated MRSA (5 of 469; overall community-associated MRSA carriage rate, 1.1%). MRSA carriage was associated with antimicrobial use in the previous year (risk ratio [RR], 7.2; P = .04) and residence in a household of more than 7 individuals (RR, 4.5; P= .03). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis indicated that 5 (55%) of 9 MRSA carriage isolates were closely related, including 3 (60%) of 5 that were community associated.

Prevalence of community-associated MRSA colonization was approximately 1% in this rural, American Indian population. Community-associated MRSA colonization was associated with recent antimicrobial use and larger household.

To quantify the frequency and features of infection control programs implemented in Italian public hospitals.

In 2000, a questionnaire was mailed targeting all teaching and research hospitals and those with more than 300 beds, and a random sample of 50% of the district hospitals with fewer than 300 beds.

The overall response rate was 80%. Fifty percent of the 428 respondent hospitals claimed to have an infection control committee, 43% an infection control physician (average, 1 infection control physician per 2,963 beds), and 33% an infection control nurse (average, I infection control nurse per 572 beds). Having an infection control committee, nurse, and physician occurred significantly more frequently in Northern and Central Italy, where the Regional Authority had implemented a regional infection control policy, and in larger hospitals. Thirty-nine percent of the hospitals claimed to have ongoing surveillance in place, mostly based on laboratory results. Eighty percent of the hospitals had defined at least one written protocol related to infection control policies, mostly for housekeeping, cleaning, disinfecting and sterilizing patient equipment, or standard precautions; on the contrary, policies aimed at preventing specifie infections were less frequent.

This national representative survey showed that the infrastructure for infection control is suboptimal when compared with the guidelines and surveys published in other countries.

To investigate whether stratification of the risk of developing a surgical-site infection (SSI) is improved when a logistic regression model is used to weight the risk factors for each procedure category individually instead of the modified NNIS System risk index.

The German Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System, based on NNIS System methodology, has 273 acute care surgical departments participating voluntarily. Data on 9 procedure categories were included (214,271 operations).

For each of the procedure categories, the significant risk factors from the available data (NNIS System risk index variables of ASA score, wound class, duration of operation, and endoscope use, as well as gender and age) were identified by multiple logistic regression analyses with stepwise variable selection. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve resulting from these analyses was used to evaluate the predictive power of logistic regression models.

For most procedures, at least two of the three variables contributing to the NNIS System risk index were shown to be independent risk factors (appendectomy, knee arthroscopy, cholecystectomy, colon surgery, herniorrhaphy, hip prosthesis, knee prosthesis, and vascular surgery). The predictive power of logistic regression models (including age and gender, when appropriate) was low (between 0.55 and 0.71) and for most procedures only slightly better than that of the NNIS System risk index.

Without the inclusion of additional procedure-specific variables, logistic regression models do not improve the comparison of SSI rates from various hospitals.

To examine and quantify the temporal trends of nosocomial multidrug-resistant, gram-negative bacilli.

A 9-year surveillance study was conducted. Multidrug resistance was defined as resistance to 3 or more antimicrobial classes.

Tertiary-care institution.

From 1994 to 2002, multidrug-resistant, gram-negative bacilli increased from 1% to 16% for multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 4% to 13% for multidrug-resistant Enterobacter species, 0.5% to 17% for multidrug-resistant Klebsiella species, 0% to 9% for multidrug-resistant Proteus species, and 0.2% to 4% for multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli (P ≤ .05). The most common pattern of multidrug resistance was co-resistance to quinolones, third-generation cephalosporins, and aminoglycosides.

The rapid rise of multidrug-resistant, gram-negative bacilli may warrant infection control programs to include these pathogens in strategies aimed at limiting the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.

Surgical-site infection (SSI) is a serious and costly complication following coronary artery bypass graft (CABG). We analyzed surgical factors, microbiology, and complications at a 608-bed community teaching hospital to identify opportunities for prevention.

All patients undergoing CABG procedures from June 1997 through December 2000 were analyzed. Hospital records and postdischarge surveillance data were reviewed for demographics, surgical information, timing and classification of infection, microbiology, and bacteremic events.

Of 3,443 patients undergoing CABG, sternal SSI developed in 122 (3.5%); 71 (58.2%) were classified as superficial SSI and 51 (41.8%) as deep SSI. Surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis was employed in all cases. On average, infection occurred 21.5 days (range, 4 to 315) after CABG. Most cases were diagnosed on readmission (59%); 20 cases (16%) were identified by postdischarge surveillance. Microbiological data were positive in 109 (89.3%), with a single pathogen implicated in most (86.2%). Gram-positive cocci were most frequently recovered (81%); gram-negative bacilli (17%), gram-positive bacilli (1%), and yeast (1%) were less common. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated pathogen (49%). Bacteremia was noted in 22 instances (18%). It was significantly associated with deep SSI (P =. 002) and identified only in S. aureus cases.

SSI complicated 3.5% of the procedures. S. aureus was implicated in most of the cases and was significantly associated with deep SSI. It was the only pathogen associated with secondary bacteremia. In addition to standard guidelines, targeted methods against S. aureus should help reduce the overall rate of SSI.

To determine the frequency and type of nosocomial infections (NIs) (especially surgical-site infections [SSIs]), risk factors, and the type and duration of antibiotic use among surgical patients in Greek hospitals.

Two point-prevalence studies.

Fourteen Greek hospitals.

Those in the hospitals during two prevalence surveys undergoing surgery during their stay.

In the 1999 survey, 129 of 1,037 surgical patients had developed 148 NIs (14.3%). A total of 1,093 operations were registered, and 49 SSIs (4.5%) were found. In the 2000 survey, 82 of 868 surgical patients had developed 88 NIs (10.1%). A total of 902 operations were registered, and 38 SSIs were detected (4.2%). The median length of stay (LOS) for surgical patients without SSI was 10.0 days (range, 1-19 days); for patients who developed SSI it was 30 days (range, 1-52 days; P < .001). The median LOS prior to surgery for patients without SSI was 1 day (range, 0-4 days); for patients who developed SSI it was 3 days (range, 0-7.5 days; P < .001). Among 30 possible risk factors studied, wound class, LOS prior to surgery, and central venous catheterization were independent predictors of SSI. Median durations of prophylactic antibiotic therapy were 4 days (range, 1-14 days) and 6 days (range, 1-16 days) in the 1999 and 2000 surveys, respectively.

Surgical patients in Greek hospitals suffered higher rates of SSI than did surgical patients in other developed countries while prophylactic antibiotics were used excessively.

To review the incidence and trends of MRSA during a 12-year (1989-2000) period at a university teaching hospital and the relationship between strain distribution by antibiogram and molecular typing.

Retrospective review of laboratory-based surveillance records on MRSA isolation and characterization of strains by antimicrobial susceptibility and PFGE. A patient episode was counted at the time when MRSA was first isolated.

A 1,350-bed university teaching hospital in Hong Kong.

Those with clinical isolates of MRSA.

During 1989 to 2000, the hospital recorded 1,203,175 deaths and discharges (D&D) and encountered 5,707 patient episodes of new MRSA isolation. The overall incidence of patient episodes of MRSA was 0.47/100 D&D. In 1989, the incidence was 0.81/100 D&D and fell to a low of 0.33/100 D&D in 1995, but then rose to 0.50/100 D&D in 2000. Antibiogram and DNA typing identified 5 major types. PFGE type A constituted 68% (211/312) of isolates and was present throughout the 12-year period. PFGE type B constituted 13% (40/312) of isolates and was only present from 1995 to 2000. These isolates form a distinct clone and had unique antibiotic resistance profiles.

The study showed the establishment of a dominant MRSA clone (PFGE type A group) in the intensive care, medical, and surgical units and the appearance of a new MRSA strain in 1995 (PFGE type B), which partly explained the rise in incidence of MRSA cases and a disproportionate rise in MRSA bacteremia from 1995 to 2000.