Mountain ungulates play an important role in ecosystems as primary consumers and as prey for rare predators. Monitoring their populations is therefore critical for conservation efforts. Within the 12 countries comprising the range of the snow leopard Panthera uncia, camera traps are routinely deployed to estimate numbers of this apex predator, providing an opportunity to also estimate numbers of their prey using bycatch data. However, the relative accuracy of the resulting prey density estimates compared to field surveys targeted specifically at prey species was unknown. We compared the performance of distance sampling based on camera-trap data with field surveys to estimate population densities of bharal Pseudois nayaur. We assessed estimates of bharal numbers from cameras placed to detect snow leopards (where ungulate captures presented bycatch data) against estimates from cameras placed specifically to detect bharal and then compared both with an independent estimate of bharal density from double-observer surveys and a total count of all bharal in the study area. The double-observer field surveys suggested a density of 1.94 bharal/km2, which was similar to the density derived from the total count (1.92 bharal/km2). By comparison, we estimated density to be 2.11 bharal/km2 from camera-based distance sampling and 0.35 bharal/km2 from cameras placed to detect snow leopards (bycatch data). The density estimate from the ungulate bycatch data was significantly lower than that from the double-observer field survey and from the total count. It was also less precise, more costly and more time-consuming to obtain. Our results caution against using bycatch data from surveys designed for predators to estimate ungulate prey densities and indicate that tailored survey methods are required.

Armenia is notable for its wild pear diversity, which includes a large number of globally threatened endemic species. Despite progress in recent studies there still remains, however, a lack of data on the distribution and population sizes of some species, and any threats to them. This information is necessary to assess their conservation status and for the planning and implementation of conservation actions. I present the results of fieldwork in the Vayots Dzor province of Armenia on the globally threatened endemic pear species Pyrus daralagezi Mulk., Pyrus hajastana Mulk. and Pyrus gergerana Gladkova. I report new data on distribution, threats and species biology. I inventoried individual trees, discovering five new individuals of P. daralagezi in Herher sanctuary, rediscovering a population of P. hajastana in its locus classicus 52 years after the first record, and finding a new locality for P. gergerana around the village of Artavan. I make recommendations for the further study and conservation of these threatened pear species.

Wild meat hunting is one of the primary threats to biodiversity, and it is important to understand the drivers of hunting by communities residing within biodiverse areas, the methods they employ and their preferences for particular wild meat types. We investigated these aspects of wild meat hunting amongst the Indigenous Naga tribes of the Indo–Myanmar biodiversity hotspot in Nagaland, north-east India. Local people consumed all 31 species of wild mammals detected on camera traps, but the hunters we surveyed mostly preferred large-bodied wild mammals, particularly barking deer Muntiacus muntjak and bears (Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus, sun bear Helarctos malayanus). Hunting is subsistence driven following the predictions of optimal foraging theory. The traditional hunting weapons, techniques and strategies used varied according to prey, forest habitat type, community and season. The use of guns, however, is widespread and has replaced most traditional methods of hunting. Additionally, subsistence hunting is evolving into an economically driven activity because of the influence of wildlife trafficking. Discussions with local people regarding their perceptions of conservation provided insights into the dependency of these communities on biodiversity and their recognition of biodiversity losses from overhunting. Nevertheless, communities appear not to be motivated to participate in biodiversity conservation. An interdisciplinary approach to conservation, addressing education coupled with integrated policies that could sustain economic and cultural values is needed in communities such as Nagaland, where hunting remains culturally driven and primarily subsistence orientated.

Big cats are of conservation concern throughout their range, and genetic tools are often employed to study them for various purposes. However, there are several difficulties in using genetic tools for big cat conservation that could be resolved by modern methods of DNA sequencing. Recent reports of the sighting of a putative Javan tiger Panthera tigris sondaica in West Java, Indonesia, highlight some of the difficulties of studying the genetics of big cats. We reanalysed the data of the original reports and found that the conclusions were drawn based on incorrect copies of the genes. Specifically, the nuclear copy of the mitochondrial gene was analysed with the mitochondrial sequence, leading to discordance in the results. However, re-sequencing of the remaining DNA confirms that the sighting could have been that of a tiger, but the subspecies cannot be confirmed. This work highlights the urgency of developing high-throughput sequencing infrastructure in the tropics and the need for reliable databases for the study of big cats.

The conservation sector increasingly values reflexivity, in which professionals critically reflect on the social, institutional and political aspects of their work. Reflexivity offers diverse benefits, from enhancing individual performance to driving institutional transformation. However, integrating reflexivity into conservation practice remains challenging and is often confined to informal reflections with limited impact. To overcome this challenge, we introduce co-reflexivity, offering an alternative to the binary distinction between social science on or for conservation, which respectively produce critical outsider accounts of conservation or provide social science instruments for achieving conservation objectives. Instead, co-reflexivity is a form of social science with conservation, in which conservation professionals and social scientists jointly develop critical yet constructive perspectives on and approaches to conservation. We demonstrate the value of co-reflexivity by presenting a set of reflections on the project model, the dominant framework for conservation funding, which organizes conservation activity into distinct, target-oriented and temporally bounded units that can be funded, implemented and evaluated separately. Co-reflexivity helps reveal the diverse challenges that the project model creates for conservation practice, including for the adoption of reflexivity itself. Putting insights from social science research in dialogue with reflections from conservation professionals, we co-produce a critique of project-based conservation with both theoretical and practical implications. These cross-disciplinary conversations provide a case study of how co-reflexivity can enhance the conservation–social science relationship.

One of the 84 plant species endemic to Jeju Island, South Korea, is Salix blinii H. Lév. We surveyed its habitat to obtain quantitative information on the population demographics of S. blinii, and thus to re-evaluate its conservation status and recommend in situ conservation strategies. We recorded 365 individuals in three valleys, above 1,200 m, on Mt Halla, of which 34 were flowering individuals capable of sexual reproduction. Although the population size is limited, the high proportion of small individuals suggests ongoing recruitment. Vegetative reproduction is presumed to play an important role, as it does for other Salix species that grow in valleys or along intermittent streams. Salix blinii is currently categorized as Vulnerable, based on criterion D2, on the IUCN Red List, but we reassess it as Vulnerable based on criteria D1+2 based on the number of mature individuals recorded. Although Mt Halla is designated as multiple large protected areas, small-scale protected areas within these larger areas need to be designated for more effective in situ conservation of S. blinii.

Evidence suggests that numbers of African rhinoceroses can increase when annual poaching rates remain below 3.5% of the continental population. In 2020, the global response to the Covid-19 pandemic coincided with a poaching rate of 2.3% (the lowest recorded since 2015) suggesting favourable conditions for recovery. This study had two aims: (1) to examine trends in continental poaching rates since 2020 as pandemic-related restrictions eased, and (2) to assess whether reduced poaching rates have translated into growth in rhinoceros numbers. We found that poaching rates remained relatively low during 2020–2023, ranging from 2.3 to 2.5% annually. During this period, the continental rhinoceros population increased at an average annual rate of 2.9% (95% CI 1.7–4.1%), reaching an estimated 23,995 individuals by the end of 2023. However, population trends varied by site, with some areas experiencing declines as a result of localized increases in poaching. These findings highlight the importance of continued efforts to mitigate poaching, address habitat fragmentation, and adapt to broader environmental changes to support the long-term recovery of African rhinoceroses.

Maintaining jaguar Panthera onca subpopulations throughout Mesoamerica is vital to range-wide jaguar conservation. Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica is critical habitat for the Osa Peninsula jaguar subpopulation. There is a debate regarding whether the jaguars in this National Park are in a state of crisis. To examine this, we implemented long-term camera-trap monitoring throughout Corcovado National Park during 2015–2021. Using a spatially explicit Jolly–Seber model we estimated jaguar populations and distribution throughout our study area. Additionally, we reran our model using a constrained study area to compare our findings with those of a previous study. Trends in jaguar abundance indices and population estimates during 2015–2021 indicate that jaguar abundance has increased over time. Our jaguar density estimates also fall within the range of jaguar densities reported for relatively stable populations elsewhere. Using the same study area as that of a prior study, jaguar densities also increased over the duration of our study and were mostly comparable to previous density estimates. Our results suggest that jaguars within Corcovado National Park may not be in a state of crisis. Rather, our findings provide further hope for the jaguars of the Osa Peninsula. They do not, however, diminish the importance of continued conservation efforts. These will remain critical both inside and outside Corcovado National Park, as threats appear to have persisted over time.

Chhattisgarh, India, harbours a metapopulation of 250–300 Asian elephants Elephas maximus that has expanded its range from neighbouring states since 2000. Elephants in the state occur across a mosaic of forests interspersed with agricultural settlements, leading to frequent interactions with people, some of which culminate in conflict. We assessed patterns of crop losses as a result of elephant incursions, at two spatial scales. We found widespread crop losses, with 1,426 settlements in and around 10 forest divisions and four protected areas reporting elephant-related crop losses during 2015–2020. At the landscape scale, spanning c. 39,000 km2, intensity of habitat use by elephants, forest cover and number of forest patches explained variations in intensity of crop losses. At a finer spatial scale, covering c. 1,200 km2 of forest–agriculture matrix in Surguja, probability of crop loss was low near roads but high close to forest patches and was also affected by patch heterogeneity. Both male and female elephant groups fed on crops. As areas with high crop losses are also areas used intensively by elephants, management to increase elephant occupancy in relatively large and connected forest patches is imperative, to minimize crop losses and improve elephant conservation. Concomitantly, expansion of elephant range into agricultural areas that lack forests should be discouraged. In forest divisions, options to reduce negative human–elephant interactions include institutionalizing elephant monitoring, transparent and prompt ex gratia payment for crop losses, and the use of portable physical barriers.

The regent honeyeater Anthochaera phrygia is a Critically Endangered Australian songbird, with current population estimates of < 300 individuals remaining in the wild. Low nest success is a factor preventing the recovery of the population, and management remedies are needed. However, a lack of data on intervention success raises uncertainty and impedes planning. To identify management priorities under uncertainty, we engaged with conservation practitioners and key stakeholders to develop and evaluate potential nest protection interventions. Four categories of threats were considered: avian predators, mammalian predators, extreme weather events and avian competitors. The interventions with the highest predicted probabilities of nest success under each threat category were, respectively: lethal control of avian predators, the use of tree collars to control arboreal mammalian predators, the provisioning of supplementary food and nesting resources during extreme weather events, and control of the noisy miner Manorina melanocephala, a competitor species. Our analysis shows that by applying a combination of conservation actions alongside improvements in nest detection, it is possible, based on the opinion of experts, to provide a pathway for the recovery of the regent honeyeater.

Central African great ape populations are in serious decline as a result of poaching, habitat loss and disease. Reliable estimates of population size are urgently needed for informed management action. We estimate the abundance and distribution of central chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes and western lowland gorilla Gorilla gorilla gorilla populations in the c. 11,000 km2 Dja-Ngoyla Complex in Cameroon, a critical component of the Tri National Dja-Odzala-Minkébé (TRIDOM) transboundary landscape, which covers 178,000 km2. We compare our results with previous site estimates and with other population estimates from the region. We completed 1,096.64 km of line transects (n = 559) in 2021 using the standing-crop nest counts method. The Dja-Ngoyla Complex supported c. 11,787 great apes. Chimpanzee abundance was significantly higher in Dja, and Ngoyla-Mintom supported 71% of the gorilla population. Thirty-seven per cent of the gorilla population and 17% of the chimpanzee population occurred in logging concessions. There was no significant change in the species’ abundance in Dja Faunal Reserve compared to our 2018 estimate using the same methodology. The chimpanzee population density was much higher in Dja and Ngoyla Faunal Reserves compared to other protected areas in the region. There was large variation in great ape densities across logging concessions, and those with implemented management certification schemes supported higher densities. This study also highlights the high risk of Dja’s great ape population becoming isolated. Promoting forest management certification to strengthen wildlife and habitat protection in all logging concessions in the Complex is urgently needed and will also allow local communities to benefit from these forests.

Historically, conservation has focused on species, ecological communities, systems and processes, rather than on individual animals. Even among advocates for compassionate conservation, the focus on animal welfare or animal rights only relates to conservation activities. However, in recent years the idea of managing ecosystems primarily to improve wild animal welfare has been gaining traction among animal ethicists and animal welfare researchers. Managing ecosystems for animal welfare is generally antithetical to management to support ecological and evolutionary processes, since essential features of those processes, such as predation, privation and competition, are sources of animal suffering. Our aim in this paper is not to defend the proposal that ecosystem management should focus primarily on improving wild animal welfare. It is, rather, to situate this proposal in relation to concerns about wild animal welfare expressed by the public and conservation biologists; to connect it to the rise of subjectivist theories of animal welfare; to introduce the ethical arguments used to support elevating the importance of individual wild animals; to explain the advocacy context; to outline potential implications for conservation; and to review critiques of taking a wild animal welfare focus in ecosystem management.

Roads are vital for the economic development of countries but they pose major problems for wildlife. The road network in Central America is expanding, yet information about wildlife–vehicle collisions is scarce. We compiled data on vertebrate collisions with vehicles in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras, from projects created on the citizen science platform iNaturalist, to provide the first assessment of how these species are affected by roads in northern Central America. Our projects gathered 670 wildlife roadkill records that had been logged by 95 users across the three countries, with 122 species identified. Mammals and reptiles represented 44 and 30% of the records, respectively, with opossums Didelphis spp. and Philander vossi, the common boa Boa constrictor and the neotropical whip snake Masticophis mentovarius being the most frequently reported species (112, 28, 43 and 23 records, respectively). One of the species recorded is categorized as globally Endangered on the IUCN Red List, two as Vulnerable, four as Near Threatened and four have not been evaluated. Forty-six species are listed as Threatened or Endangered nationally. This study is the first roadkill assessment in northern Central America to which both members of the public and specialists contributed, underscoring the value of public engagement and citizen science. We urge further assessment of road impacts on wildlife in this region using standardized methods to identify roadkill rates and hotspots, and the implementation of mitigation measures for existing and planned roads in the region.

Iberodes littoralis subsp. gallaecica (Laínz) M. Serrano, R. Carbajal & S. Ortiz is a small annual plant endemic to dune systems in the north-west Iberian Peninsula. It is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is a priority taxon under the EU Habitats Directive. Nevertheless, the only comprehensive census of this subspecies was conducted in 2009. Here we present the results of a new survey conducted in 2023 that adds a new location to its known range. Comparison with the previous census suggests that both the total population and area of occupancy have increased. However, these changes were not uniform across the range of the subspecies, with populations increasing at the northern and southern extremes and populations at central sites remaining stable or decreasing. Spatial differences in climate, anthropogenic pressures, plant performance and/or random fluctuations may explain these interpopulation variabilities. Given that the majority of populations are already located within the EU Natura 2000 network, we recommend that the current level of protection be maintained and that the plant be reintroduced into dune systems from which it has recently disappeared. Despite the increase in the total population, we recommend that the plant be recategorized as Critically Endangered given that its area of occupancy is small. Further censuses over time will be needed to provide information on population dynamics, trends, fluctuations and responses to environmental variables.

Effective conservation management of threatened species with transboundary distributions is a challenge, requiring international coordination to ensure that country-specific actions align with regional imperatives. Many international conservation efforts overlook species needing attention and fail to incorporate the field expertise of local researchers in regional-level assessments. Here we focus on the taruka Hippocamelus antisensis, a threatened and little-studied deer of the Central Andes Ecoregion in South America. Since 2016, experts, managers and governmental authorities from all countries encompassing the species’ range have gathered to collate information about its presence and coordinate efforts to conserve it. We constructed taruka distribution models using historical records and more recent sightings reported during the last 50 years. Our findings revealed several critical insights: slope, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) during the dry season, and daily and seasonal temperature variability are primary predictors of taruka distribution, and the largest part of its range is in Peru (54%), followed by Bolivia (30%), Argentina (10%) and Chile (6%). The species’ core distribution is confined to the western and eastern limits of the Central Andes Ecoregion, bordered by the Sechura and Atacama Desert to the west and the Yungas Forest to the east. Protection is limited, with only 12 and 8% of the core and non-core areas, respectively, of the species’ range under formal protection. We recommend safeguarding connectivity of the core distribution by establishing transboundary protected areas, improving taruka coexistence with local communities, strengthening and formalizing international collaboration amongst taruka experts and raising the species’ appeal amongst policymakers and the public. In particular, we hope to encourage international collaboration between Southern Hemisphere specialists. This is important because these researchers have extensive field knowledge that could improve global conservation efforts, especially in regions that lack adequate conservation funding.

Human–wildlife conflict is a critical and complex challenge in wildlife conservation. It arises when humans and wildlife interact and one or both parties suffer negative consequences from the interaction. This research assessed the extent of damage resulting from human–African buffalo Syncerus caffer conflict and explored mitigation strategies. We used a semi-structured questionnaire-based survey of 131 households randomly selected in Kambi ya Simba, Oldeani and Tloma villages surrounding Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Our results revealed that resource competition was the main factor inducing human–African buffalo conflict. The impacts reported most frequently were crop damage (especially during the wet seasons) and human casualties. Crops that were most often damaged included maize, beans, wheat, peas and coffee. To minimize buffalo crop depredation, farmers currently use traditional mitigation approaches such as guarding farms, lighting fires, using torchlight and vocal and other auditory deterrents. In addition, a local coffee estate installed electrified fencing around its plantation. Our findings demonstrate the impacts of human–African buffalo conflict on local communities and the importance of continuing human–African buffalo conflict monitoring to improve conservation action and increase the participation of the local community in conservation activities. To minimize human–African buffalo conflict, we recommend conservation strategies that improve the natural habitat of the African buffalo. Most importantly, providing communities affected by human–African buffalo conflict with modern and more effective mitigation methods, paired with increased community awareness of the use of these methods, could result in significant reductions in the human cost of human–African buffalo conflict.