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Victim Precipitation and the Wage Gap
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 March 2018
Extract
Cortina, Rabelo, and Holland (2018) accurately cite the general public's overuse of victim precipitation ideologies, or the notion that victims engage in actions that directly bring about their unfortunate circumstances. These ideologies also have permeated industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology and the study of people in the workplace (e.g., women's choice in clothing leads to sexual harassment, certain target characteristics and actions incite workplace bullying). We agree with Cortina et al. that this ideology unintentionally benefits the perpetrator by placing blame and responsibility for nonoptimal workplace situations directly on the target. The field of I-O psychology needs to move away from this model of victim blaming as a remediation for workplace disparities.
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- Copyright © Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2018
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All authors contributed to this manuscript equally and author order was determined alphabetically.
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Cortina, Rabelo, and Holland (Reference Cortina, Rabelo and Holland2018) accurately cite the general public's overuse of victim precipitation ideologies, or the notion that victims engage in actions that directly bring about their unfortunate circumstances. These ideologies also have permeated industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology and the study of people in the workplace (e.g., women's choice in clothing leads to sexual harassment, certain target characteristics and actions incite workplace bullying). We agree with Cortina et al. that this ideology unintentionally benefits the perpetrator by placing blame and responsibility for nonoptimal workplace situations directly on the target. The field of I-O psychology needs to move away from this model of victim blaming as a remediation for workplace disparities.
We bring attention to a specific arena in the workplace that is besieged with a victim precipitation framework: the wage gap between men and women. People often justify the gender wage gap by suggesting that “Women are not doing the same amount of work,” “they are opting out,” or “they are working fewer hours.” These justifications put the responsibility and blame on women themselves, preventing us from identifying and addressing the real root of the problem: not women's actions or inactions but systemic inequity within organizations and society. Gender discrimination occurs both subtly and overtly throughout hiring, placement, and promotion processes. However, our reliance on the victim precipitation perspective absolves those who perpetuate systems of inequality while placing responsibility on the victims—female wage earners who should be making more and faring better in the workplace.
In this response, we discuss the gender wage gap and myths based on victim precipitation. Then, we move beyond victim precipitation to explore what can be done by I-O psychologists and organizational leaders. As such, we hope to raise awareness of an issue that has long been plagued with victim blaming and discuss how to properly address the gender wage gap.
The Gender Wage Gap and Myths Based on Victim Precipitation
In the United States, women earn approximately 80 cents to the man's dollar (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). Although the gender wage gap has narrowed since 1960, when women earned only 61 cents for every dollar men earned, it is nowhere near equal. At the current rate of improvement, the U.S. will not reach pay equity until 2152 (AAUW, 2016). Even then, we are not convinced it will happen. According to the World Economic Forum's 2015 Gender Gap Report, the U.S. ranks 74 out of 145 countries assessed for income equity. For a country that is a global leader in technology, finance, higher education, and entertainment, our weak standing in terms of pay equity is unacceptable.
Some of the most common defenses proposed for the gender wage gap include: (a) women are not doing equal work; (b) women leave the workplace to have and raise children; (c) women choose less lucrative professions; (d) women don't ask for what they want; and (e) women don't have as much education or experience as men do. Each of these reasons are not only incorrect, they place the blame for wage inequity on women rather than on employers, organizations, society, and other systemic causes. We will address each of these victim precipitation–based myths in turn.
Women Are Not Doing Equal Work
This belief is inaccurate. Women are the breadwinners in 44% of families (O'Connor & Ettinger, Reference O'Connor and Ettinger2015), and in fact, the New York Times estimates that over 75% of single mothers are sole breadwinners (Kantor, Fuller, & Scheiber, Reference Kantor, Fuller and Scheiber2016). In addition, women tend to spend more time than men mentoring and doing service-related activities on top of their own work (Misra, Hickes Lundquist, Holmes, & Agiomavritis, Reference Misra, Hickes Lundquist, Holmes and Agiomavritis2011). Women's productivity does not stop at the workplace; women also contribute about 65 more minutes each day, on average, than men when it comes to household duties and childcare (U.S. Department of Labor, 2017).
Women Leave the Workplace to Have and Raise Children
Although motherhood is the often-cited reason for women of childbearing age leaving organizations, women are actually primarily motivated by factors unrelated to motherhood, including more lucrative job offers and shortcomings of their current organization, such as a lack of training and advancement opportunities, and a deficiency of meaningful and stimulating work (Noël & Arscott, Reference Noël and Arscott2015). Moreover, most expectant mothers do not take significant time off work while they are pregnant: 66% of first-time mothers work during their pregnancy, 88% of whom work into their last trimester (Laughlin, Reference Laughlin2011). After giving birth, many women want to continue working but are often “mommy-tracked,” for example, passed over for job assignments and promotions or removed from projects they used to lead (Ely, Stone, & Ammerman, Reference Ely, Stone and Ammerman2014). In addition, mothers receive hourly wages that are approximately 5% lower, per child, than the wages of nonmothers (Staff & Mortimer, Reference Staff and Mortimer2012). Essentially, women are punished at work for having children.
Women Choose Less Lucrative Professions
Although men and women do tend to choose different types of careers, with more men entering higher-paying careers than women, this does not account for the wage gap (Hegewisch, Liepmann, Hayes, & Hartmann, Reference Hegewisch, Liepmann, Hayes and Hartmann2010). Even in the same professions, including those that are female dominated (e.g., social work, nursing), women make less money than do men (Institute for Women's Policy Research, 2017). Moreover, in a 2010 study of MBA graduates—individuals who typically seek high-paying careers regardless of gender—women received starting salaries that were $4,600 less than men's, even after accounting for number of years of prior experience, time since receiving MBA, first post-MBA job level, global region, and industry (Carter & Silva, Reference Carter and Silva2010). Finally, as women enter historically male-dominated fields, the median salary for the field tends to decrease, and vice versa (Miller, Reference Miller2016).
Women Don't Ask for What They Want
Women do negotiate and ask for what they want; they simply don't get the same outcomes as do men. A 2011 study of MBA graduates found that women negotiated for greater compensation or higher positions at the same rate as men when beginning a new job (Carter & Silva, Reference Carter and Silva2011). Despite this equal effort, salaries negotiated by men are, on average, $10,000 higher than those negotiated by women (Pradel, Bowles, & McGinn, Reference Pradel, Bowles and McGinn2006). This differential is often justified by differences in negotiation abilities; however, this explanation leaves out the impact of socialization. Traditional gender stereotypes portray women as communal and selfless (Eagly, Reference Eagly1987). When women self-advocate for themselves in negotiations, they are acting in non-normative ways, which is linked to decreased likability and, consequently, decreased influence (Rudman & Glick, Reference Rudman and Glick1999). In addition, because women are viewed as weaker, both men and women make worse offers to women and pressure them to concede more (Babcock & Laschever, Reference Babcock and Laschever2009; Solnick, Reference Solnick2001).
Women Don't Have as Much Education or Experience as Men Do
Even though women now hold the majority of college, master's, and doctoral degrees (Lopez & Gonzalez-Barrera, Reference Lopez and Gonzalez-Barrera2014; Okahana, Feaster, & Allum, Reference Okahana, Feaster and Allum2016), men continue to earn more than women at every level of education (Ewart, Reference Ewart2012). Even after taking into account prior work experience, women still earn less than men (Ibarra, Carter, & Silva, Reference Ibarra, Carter and Silva2010). Furthermore, the gender wage gap actually increases as men and women proceed along their career paths (Goldin, Reference Goldin2015). In other words, as men and women both obtain more experience, the gap widens. In fact, the greatest gender wage gap is at the executive level (Franke, Reference Franke2015).
Moving Beyond Victim Precipitation
How do we move beyond a victim precipitation perspective? Instead of victim blaming, organizations can take a proactive approach to reduce inequity. We suggest the following organizational strategies for wage gap reduction.
Identify and Remove Barriers
Organizations should identify the potential barriers that they have created, maintained, or reinforced that prevent women from reaching the highest echelons of their company. For instance, organizational leaders might examine whether qualified candidates are thrown out systematically because they have gaps in their work experience, which could potentially result from taking time off for child rearing or for elder care. A way to revise this barrier is to develop training programs that allow lower managers to fast track to higher positions. New innovative ideas like this can reduce the “lack of experience” problem. Another way to determine potential barriers is to conduct focus groups with women at various levels in the organization. Directly discussing these issues with the individuals who are impacted will allow for better understanding of any systemic problems that may stall their careers or advancement in the organization.
Provide Equal Growth Opportunities
All employees within an organization should have the same opportunity to learn, grow, and advance in their careers. The developmental experiences that organizations offer to men and women should be equitable in both quality and quantity. Research by King et al. (Reference King, Botsford, Hebl, Kazama, Perkins and Dawson2012) on men and women in an oil and gas company shows that, whereas men and women received the same quantity of developmental experiences, the quality was significantly different. Women were more likely to get “softball” assignments and did not receive as much challenging and developmental feedback as did men. Companies also should ensure that the access men and women get to mentors, senior managers, and executives is similar. If women get less time with superiors, they may be less likely to be suggested for positions, opportunities, or assignments. Recent research by Nittrouer et al. (Reference Nittrover, Hebl, Ashburn-Nardo, Trump-Steele, Lane and Valian2018) similarly revealed that when committees inviting academic speakers comprised only men, they were less likely to select women to give talks; however, the addition of women on these committees significantly enhanced the likelihood of women giving talks. Hence, organizations with only senior male leadership should be especially aware of potentially passing over qualified women.
Take Action Toward Work/Life Balance
Organizations need to do more than talk about addressing work/life balance. It is simply impossible for people to give 100% of themselves to both the workplace and their families. This issue impacts both men and women. Due to traditional gender roles, working women still take on the majority of household duties, whereas men feel pressured to stay at work and serve as the main breadwinner. Organizations should be at the forefront in advocating that men take more active and balanced roles in raising their children when they are away from the office. Both maternity and paternity leaves must become a reality—not just the idea or availability of them, but the practice of actually taking advantage of them and not being penalized for doing so. Organizations also can provide on-site daycare facilities or subsidies for child care to help their employees take care of their families while staying present at work. Other options to consider include flexible schedules, remote work, and job sharing. Similar to maternity and paternity leave, organizations not only need to provide more options, they need to encourage employees to utilize them.
Offer Training and Education
All organizational cultures should value and promote diversity. During orientation and organizational trainings, women need to be represented across all levels of the organization. Diversity trainings should raise awareness of subtle biases, emphasizing a social norm that has zero tolerance for discrimination of any kind. Organizations should not only offer a one-session diversity training but rather should continually provide workshops, seminars, or refresher courses to remind employees how to conduct themselves in nonsexist and fair ways. In addition, organizations can improve the effectiveness of these trainings by incorporating diversity-minded goal-setting practices and ensuring the participation of upper-level management, both of which promote employee engagement (Madera, King, & Hebl, Reference Madera, King and Hebl2013).
Ensure That Policies Are Nondiscriminatory
Organizational leaders should carefully examine their current policies, from hiring to promotion, and forbid all forms of sexual harassment and discrimination. Policies should ensure equal compensation, and upper-level management should be fully transparent when discussing compensation and advancement with their employees. They should make it clear why people do or do not advance, and they should share compensation ranges for each position, as well as data on which the ranges are based.
Promote Male Allies
Last, it is imperative to have male allies or “in-house champions.” These are men in the workplace who are in positions of influence who advocate for women. Research by Trump-Steele, Corrington, Nittrouer, and Hebl (Reference Trump-Steele, Corrington, Nittrouer and Hebl2017) has shown that men are more likely to support women's causes if other men (versus women) champion these causes. In the workplace, employees who see male colleagues advocate for gender equity may be more likely to take the cause seriously and follow suit.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is simply time to stop blaming women for the wage gap. This victim precipitation ideology, as Cortina et al. (Reference Cortina, Rabelo and Holland2018) discussed, has no place in organizations. Furthermore, I-O psychologists should be a part of the solution not the problem. We urge our colleagues to focus both research and applied attention on the restrictive organizational structures that prevent women from earning equitable wages. Rather than accept the wage gap, I-O psychologists should draw attention to it and remediate unfair organizational practices. One dollar for men must be one dollar for women.