In his book, The Myth of Martyrdom, Lankford (Reference Lankford2013c) provides convincing evidence that suicide terrorists are psychologically maladjusted persons who share multiple risk factors (e.g., history of previous suicide attempts, depression) with other persons who die by suicide. Lankford's proposal counters various experts who have maintained that these persons are “remarkably unremarkable,” and have even equated suicide bombers to elite military personnel.
However, a question that remains to be answered is, why do these suicidal killers not just commit suicide? Lankford suggests some societal factors such as social stigmas against conventional suicide, social approval of suicide terrorism, and the existence of sponsoring terrorist organizations. However, these factors are not wholly satisfactory as explanation. For example, in Palestine where suicide bombings are common, there are also increasing rates of “conventional” suicide (Dabbagh Reference Dabbagh2012). Also, as Lankford summarizes, there are many volunteers who are willing to conduct “conventional” terrorist attacks, but who value their lives too much to carry out suicide attacks. Hence, the question becomes: What intrapersonal factors allow some individuals to maintain a seemingly normal life, and yet be psychologically troubled enough to make long-term plans for terroristic attacks and want to kill themselves and others?
One answer might come by further exploring a point mentioned but not expanded upon by Lankford. In the book, he compares suicide terrorists with persons who commit murder-suicide (e.g., the Columbine shooters) for whom “delusions of grandeur” and the desire for “fame and glory” are prevalent (pp. 108–109). From a clinical and personality psychology perspective, these characteristics fall squarely in the domain of narcissism. Narcissism is characterized by an inflated, unstable sense of self-esteem that leads to aggression in the face of perceived or real personal slights or insult (e.g., Bobadilla et al. Reference Bobadilla, Wampler and Taylor2012; Bushman & Baumeister Reference Bushman and Baumeister1998). Narcissism has also been associated with traits like sensation seeking and risk taking (Vazire & Funder Reference Vazire and Funder2006), which, according to Lankford, are characteristic of “indirect” suicide terrorists who are expected to conduct the most “daring and elaborate attacks” (p. 147). Moreover, narcissism appears to have some adaptive qualities like achievement striving and attainment which may lend a veneer of normalcy and even some actual academic and professional achievement (e.g., Nidal Hasan).
Narcissism might not appear as an appropriate candidate personality constellation to explain suicide. After all, narcissism is commonly viewed as a pathological, extreme form of self-love, whereas feelings of self-hate are more prevalent among persons who die by suicide. However, clinical and research data suggest two types of narcissist: One commonly known as grandiose, where the person is characterized by extraversion and sociability, the other known as vulnerable, where the person “presents him/herself as timid, shy … only to reveal in therapy the most elaborate fantasies of the grandiose self” (Masterson Reference Masterson1981, p. 8). Both subtypes of narcissism have been related to self-absorption, aggressive impulses, and entitled expectations at the expense of others (Bobadilla & Taylor Reference Bobadilla, Taylor and Ramachandran2012). However, whereas grandiose narcissism is marked by social assuredness and psychological well-being, vulnerable narcissism is characterized by introversion and fear of social judgment. Indeed, vulnerable narcissism is related to avoidant personality disorder (AVPD) which is marked by extreme social anxiety (Dickinson & Pincus Reference Dickinson and Pincus2003). Notably, AVPD traits were identified by Merari et al. (Reference Merari, Diamant, Bibi, Broshi and Zakin2010) as characteristic of Palestinian would-be suicide bombers but not of terrorist cell organizers and leaders, who were the most psychologically resilient and had personality traits (e.g., manipulativeness) more likely to be characteristic of grandiose narcissism.
Self-destructive killing (including terrorism) requires the desire and capability for suicide and murder: in short, a unique mixture of self-loathing and antagonism. Vulnerable narcissism may adequately explain the paradoxical picture of persons who have a grandiose view of themselves but are simultaneously so demoralized that their suicidal ideation is channeled as “martyrdom” against real or perceived opponents. Biographical details of some prominent suicide killers exemplify these instances. Both Columbine shooters had an intense, but private, messianic contempt for others accompanied by pervasive self-loathing and feelings of inadequacy. In the months preceding the massacre, Klebold wrote in his diary: “I am God compared to some of these un-existable zombies” (Jefferson County Sheriff's Office [JCSO] 2006, p. 478), while Harris mused “I feel like GOD and I wish I was, having everyone being OFFICIALLY lower than me. I already know I am higher … in terms of universal Intelligence.” (JCSO 2006, p. 86). Simultaneously, Klebold wrote that he “hate[d his] life” due to his inability to find a girlfriend, being “intimidated”, “looking wierd [sic] & acting shy” (JCSO 2006, p. 475). Similarly, Harris – debatably labeled a psychopath (Cullen Reference Cullen2010) – consistent with vulnerable narcissistic feelings wrote how he “hated” his appearance, had “practically no self-esteem, especially concerning girls and looks and such” (JCSO 2006, p. 95). Finally, the shooters expressed a desire for revenge after perceived rejection or lack of admiration from others. Harris wrote “If people would give me more compliments all of this might still be avoidable” (JCSO 2006, p. 96). Likewise, white-supremacist Anders Breivik, before committing the worst act of terrorism in Norway's history, e-mailed a manifesto that contained as part of its call to arms to “take a few hours on solarium to look fresher,” and “visit a male salon if possible and apply makeup” prior to an “operation” because “we must look our best for the shoot” (Breivik Reference Breivik2011). Breivik's narcissism led him to seek plastic surgery, use steroids, and brag about sexual conquests, despite reports from people who knew him that he was socially awkward, and unable to find a girlfriend (Carbone Reference Carbone2011). Similar details can be gleaned from Mohammed Atta, who was painfully shy and socially inept, but contemptuous of Western customs and controlling to the point of extreme irritation if subordinates deviated in the slightest from his plans (Lankford Reference Lankford2013c).
In short, vulnerable narcissistic traits may help redefine “martyrdom” by delineating the psychological architecture of those who hate themselves and others so intensely as to seek mutual destruction. Importantly, these traits appear most relevant for “indirect” suicidal terrorists who are capable of planning and carrying out the most complex and deadly attacks.
In his book, The Myth of Martyrdom, Lankford (Reference Lankford2013c) provides convincing evidence that suicide terrorists are psychologically maladjusted persons who share multiple risk factors (e.g., history of previous suicide attempts, depression) with other persons who die by suicide. Lankford's proposal counters various experts who have maintained that these persons are “remarkably unremarkable,” and have even equated suicide bombers to elite military personnel.
However, a question that remains to be answered is, why do these suicidal killers not just commit suicide? Lankford suggests some societal factors such as social stigmas against conventional suicide, social approval of suicide terrorism, and the existence of sponsoring terrorist organizations. However, these factors are not wholly satisfactory as explanation. For example, in Palestine where suicide bombings are common, there are also increasing rates of “conventional” suicide (Dabbagh Reference Dabbagh2012). Also, as Lankford summarizes, there are many volunteers who are willing to conduct “conventional” terrorist attacks, but who value their lives too much to carry out suicide attacks. Hence, the question becomes: What intrapersonal factors allow some individuals to maintain a seemingly normal life, and yet be psychologically troubled enough to make long-term plans for terroristic attacks and want to kill themselves and others?
One answer might come by further exploring a point mentioned but not expanded upon by Lankford. In the book, he compares suicide terrorists with persons who commit murder-suicide (e.g., the Columbine shooters) for whom “delusions of grandeur” and the desire for “fame and glory” are prevalent (pp. 108–109). From a clinical and personality psychology perspective, these characteristics fall squarely in the domain of narcissism. Narcissism is characterized by an inflated, unstable sense of self-esteem that leads to aggression in the face of perceived or real personal slights or insult (e.g., Bobadilla et al. Reference Bobadilla, Wampler and Taylor2012; Bushman & Baumeister Reference Bushman and Baumeister1998). Narcissism has also been associated with traits like sensation seeking and risk taking (Vazire & Funder Reference Vazire and Funder2006), which, according to Lankford, are characteristic of “indirect” suicide terrorists who are expected to conduct the most “daring and elaborate attacks” (p. 147). Moreover, narcissism appears to have some adaptive qualities like achievement striving and attainment which may lend a veneer of normalcy and even some actual academic and professional achievement (e.g., Nidal Hasan).
Narcissism might not appear as an appropriate candidate personality constellation to explain suicide. After all, narcissism is commonly viewed as a pathological, extreme form of self-love, whereas feelings of self-hate are more prevalent among persons who die by suicide. However, clinical and research data suggest two types of narcissist: One commonly known as grandiose, where the person is characterized by extraversion and sociability, the other known as vulnerable, where the person “presents him/herself as timid, shy … only to reveal in therapy the most elaborate fantasies of the grandiose self” (Masterson Reference Masterson1981, p. 8). Both subtypes of narcissism have been related to self-absorption, aggressive impulses, and entitled expectations at the expense of others (Bobadilla & Taylor Reference Bobadilla, Taylor and Ramachandran2012). However, whereas grandiose narcissism is marked by social assuredness and psychological well-being, vulnerable narcissism is characterized by introversion and fear of social judgment. Indeed, vulnerable narcissism is related to avoidant personality disorder (AVPD) which is marked by extreme social anxiety (Dickinson & Pincus Reference Dickinson and Pincus2003). Notably, AVPD traits were identified by Merari et al. (Reference Merari, Diamant, Bibi, Broshi and Zakin2010) as characteristic of Palestinian would-be suicide bombers but not of terrorist cell organizers and leaders, who were the most psychologically resilient and had personality traits (e.g., manipulativeness) more likely to be characteristic of grandiose narcissism.
Self-destructive killing (including terrorism) requires the desire and capability for suicide and murder: in short, a unique mixture of self-loathing and antagonism. Vulnerable narcissism may adequately explain the paradoxical picture of persons who have a grandiose view of themselves but are simultaneously so demoralized that their suicidal ideation is channeled as “martyrdom” against real or perceived opponents. Biographical details of some prominent suicide killers exemplify these instances. Both Columbine shooters had an intense, but private, messianic contempt for others accompanied by pervasive self-loathing and feelings of inadequacy. In the months preceding the massacre, Klebold wrote in his diary: “I am God compared to some of these un-existable zombies” (Jefferson County Sheriff's Office [JCSO] 2006, p. 478), while Harris mused “I feel like GOD and I wish I was, having everyone being OFFICIALLY lower than me. I already know I am higher … in terms of universal Intelligence.” (JCSO 2006, p. 86). Simultaneously, Klebold wrote that he “hate[d his] life” due to his inability to find a girlfriend, being “intimidated”, “looking wierd [sic] & acting shy” (JCSO 2006, p. 475). Similarly, Harris – debatably labeled a psychopath (Cullen Reference Cullen2010) – consistent with vulnerable narcissistic feelings wrote how he “hated” his appearance, had “practically no self-esteem, especially concerning girls and looks and such” (JCSO 2006, p. 95). Finally, the shooters expressed a desire for revenge after perceived rejection or lack of admiration from others. Harris wrote “If people would give me more compliments all of this might still be avoidable” (JCSO 2006, p. 96). Likewise, white-supremacist Anders Breivik, before committing the worst act of terrorism in Norway's history, e-mailed a manifesto that contained as part of its call to arms to “take a few hours on solarium to look fresher,” and “visit a male salon if possible and apply makeup” prior to an “operation” because “we must look our best for the shoot” (Breivik Reference Breivik2011). Breivik's narcissism led him to seek plastic surgery, use steroids, and brag about sexual conquests, despite reports from people who knew him that he was socially awkward, and unable to find a girlfriend (Carbone Reference Carbone2011). Similar details can be gleaned from Mohammed Atta, who was painfully shy and socially inept, but contemptuous of Western customs and controlling to the point of extreme irritation if subordinates deviated in the slightest from his plans (Lankford Reference Lankford2013c).
In short, vulnerable narcissistic traits may help redefine “martyrdom” by delineating the psychological architecture of those who hate themselves and others so intensely as to seek mutual destruction. Importantly, these traits appear most relevant for “indirect” suicidal terrorists who are capable of planning and carrying out the most complex and deadly attacks.