Benenson et al. provide a compelling case that corroborates Campbell's “staying alive” theory. Substantial evidence was overviewed to support Benenson et al.'s claim that females invest more resources in reducing social conflict and protecting social bonds through various strategies (e.g., politeness, emotion identification) that enhance their survival. While I generally agree with Benenson et al.'s conclusions, I would like to extend them to the context of intimate partner abuse.

Benenson et al. acknowledge that females are disproportionately affected by gendered violence, particularly intimate partner abuse (Conroy, Reference Conroy2021). Yet it is unclear how female-evolved traits enhance their survival in abusive intimate relationships and if this is associated with “why” females do not “just leave” a relationship once it becomes abusive. Evidence suggests that the risk for violence is heightened when females leave or attempt to leave an abusive intimate relationship, with more than half of femicide being committed by a current or former intimate partner (Conroy, Reference Conroy2021; Petrosky et al., Reference Petrosky, Blair, Betz, Fowler, Jack and Lyons2017). Femicide is found to be the leading cause of death of females in the pregnancy and post-partum period in the United States (Wallace, Gillispie-Bell, Cruz, Davis, & Vilda, Reference Wallace, Gillispie-Bell, Cruz, Davis and Vilda2021). Further, Johnson, Eriksson, Mazerolle, and Wortley (Reference Johnson, Eriksson, Mazerolle and Wortley2019) found, in a sample of males incarcerated for femicide, that 50% did not perpetrate physical abuse in the year leading up to the femicide but exhibited coercively controlling behaviours (e.g., jealousy, stalking). Thus, severe violence and even femicide can occur even when escalating injuries from physical assaults are absent.

It could be argued that females do not immediately leave an abusive relationship as it could be safer to stay and wait for a less dangerous time for separation (e.g., once they have developed good coping skills, secured transportation/shelter/finances; Walker, Reference Walker2009). During this time, they may use female-evolved traits to adapt to their environment. These include their enhanced sensitivity and reactivity for threat-related cues (e.g., abuser's expressions of anger) and proficiency for emotion identification that may aid them in learning their abuser's triggers to navigate the cycle of abuse and mitigate confrontation. While these strategies could diminish the severity of abuse episodes, they may not be self-protective over the long term. Particularly because females can be in an abusive relationship for extended periods (with studies reporting relationships lasting over 20 years; Eckstein, Reference Eckstein2011; Humeny, Forth, & Logan, Reference Humeny, Forth and Logan2021), which heightens the risk for severe forms of abuse and detrimental consequences for females' mental and physical health (Mechanic, Weaver, & Resick, Reference Mechanic, Weaver and Resick2008). This includes acute and chronic pain from injuries (e.g., traumatic brain injury, maxillofacial injuries; de Macedo Bernardino et al., Reference de Macedo Bernardino, Santos, Ferreira, de Almeida Lima, da Nóbrega and d'Avila2018; Smirl et al., Reference Smirl, Jones, Copeland, Khatra, Taylor and Van Donkelaar2019).

Even if abusers do not perpetuate physical abuse, chronic stress from the cycle of abuse and abusers' coercively controlling behaviours increase females' isolation (Walker, Reference Walker2009) and susceptibility for mental health disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and depression (Karakurt, Patel, Whiting, & Koyutürk, Reference Karakurt, Patel, Whiting and Koyutürk2017). Substantial evidence suggests post-traumatic stress disorder and depression impedes facial affect recognition (Cotter et al., Reference Cotter, Granger, Backx, Hobbs, Looi and Barnett2018; Moser et al., Reference Moser, Aue, Suardi, Kutlikova, Cordero, Rossignol and Schechter2015) and emotion regulation (Plana, Lavoie, Battaglia, & Achim, Reference Plana, Lavoie, Battaglia and Achim2014; Vanderlind, Millgram, Baskin-Sommers, Clark, & Joormann, Reference Vanderlind, Millgram, Baskin-Sommers, Clark and Joormann2020), contributes to cognitive impairments (e.g., attention, working memory) and social withdrawal (Cotter et al., Reference Cotter, Granger, Backx, Hobbs, Looi and Barnett2018; DePierro, D'andrea, & Pole, Reference DePierro, D'andrea and Pole2013; Schweizer & Dalgleish, Reference Schweizer and Dalgleish2011), and impairs the processing of “safe environments” (i.e., hinders processing of socially affirming information, reduces approach behaviours; Nawijn et al., Reference Nawijn, van Zuiden, Frijling, Koch, Veltman and Olff2015). Karakurt et al. (Reference Karakurt, Patel, Whiting and Koyutürk2017) found intimate partner abuse survivors demonstrated elevated rates of gynaecological and pregnancy-related problems, including injuries from sexual assault, sexually transmitted diseases, low birth rates, and late entry and/or inconsistent pre-natal care. Intimate partner abuse also contributes to reduced immune system functioning (Karakurt et al., Reference Karakurt, Patel, Whiting and Koyutürk2017), decreased sleep quality (Lalley-Chareczko et al., Reference Lalley-Chareczko, Segal, Perlis, Nowakowski, Tal and Grandner2017), and enhanced risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality (Chandan et al., Reference Chandan, Thomas, Bradbury-Jones, Taylor, Bandyopadhyay and Nirantharakumar2020).

Since intimate partner abuse is associated with a heightened risk of all-cause mortality, staying in an abusive intimate relationship impedes survival and reproductive success. This is further evident via the effects of chronic stress and injury on mental and physical health, which appear to hinder the effectiveness of female-evolved traits (e.g., emotion identification proficiency) that may aid in navigating the cycle of abuse. Given the prevalence of intimate partner abuse and the effects it has on females' survival and reproductive success, Benenson et al.'s argument would benefit from including a discussion of how Campbell's “staying alive” theory applies to intimate partner abuse. One avenue would be to explore the association between female-evolved traits and their social networks that were established prior to the abusive relationship.

Benenson et al.'s findings parallel research that shows females have more intimate and reciprocal interpersonal relationships (Pearce, Machin, & Dunbar, Reference Pearce, Machin and Dunbar2021) and rely on a wider array of family and friends for mutual support than males (Conrad & White, Reference Conrad and White2010; Einolf, Reference Einolf2011). Females are also found to have more positive help-seeking attitudes than males (Mackenzie, Gekoski, & Knox, Reference Mackenzie, Gekoski and Knox2006). Males’ adherence to traditionally masculine norms (e.g., risk taking, self-reliance, dominance) is associated with less help-seeking behaviours and declines in mental health (Wong, Ho, Wang, & Miller, Reference Wong, Ho, Wang and Miller2017). Sylaska and Edwards (Reference Sylaska and Edwards2014) found females had a higher rate of disclosing intimate partner abuse than males and tended to disclose to friends and female family members. Disclosure, coupled with the reception of social support (e.g., emotional or tangible forms, such as shelter, childcare, and/or financial resources), was predictive of improved mental health (Sylaska & Edwards, Reference Sylaska and Edwards2014). It has also been found to mitigate the isolation caused by intimate partner abuse and serve as a protective mechanism against continued abuse (Bybee & Sullivan, Reference Bybee and Sullivan2005). While females may have a wide social network and a willingness to disclose and seek help it is important that their support network is equipped with the appropriate resources to assist them in safely navigating and/or exiting an abusive relationship. Thus, continued education and community outreach, complete with community and institutional resources (e.g., risk assessments, reducing stigmatization, ensuring housing and employment stability), is necessary. These factors could provide survivors a safe environment for disclosure and help-seeking that may aid in mitigating the severe negative outcomes that can result from intimate partner abuse.