Campylobacteriosis is a leading cause of acute bacterial gastroenteritis. An ecological study was undertaken to explore the association between environmental characteristics and incidence of campylobacteriosis in relation to four age groups and two seasonal periods. A multi-level Poisson regression model was used for modelling at the municipal level. High ruminant density was positively associated with incidence of campylobacteriosis, with a reduced effect as people become older. High poultry density and presence of a large poultry slaughterhouse were also associated with higher incidence, but only for people aged 16–34 years. The effect of ruminant density, poultry density, and slaughterhouses were constant across seasonal periods. Other associations were detected with population density and average daily precipitation. Close contacts with farm animals are probably involved in the associations observed. The specificity of age and season on this important disease must be considered in further studies and in the design of preventive measures.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors were investigated in 401 women of childbearing age from the North of Portugal. Of the 98 (24·4%) seropositive women, 92 (93·9%) only had immunoglobulin (Ig)G, two (2·0%) only had IgM, and four (4·1%) others had both IgG and IgM. Risk factors for T. gondii infection in women were: engaging in soil-related activities without gloves [odds ratio (OR) 8·4], consumption of unwashed raw vegetables or fruit (OR 7·6), and consumption of smoked or cured (non-cooked) processed pork products (OR 2·5). Most women of childbearing age from the North Portugal are susceptible to primary infection with T. gondii and, therefore, the risk of congenital toxoplasmosis remains high.

In August 2008, a large outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O111:NM infections associated with a buffet-style restaurant in rural Oklahoma was identified. A case-control study of restaurant patrons and a retrospective cohort study of catered event attendees were conducted coupled with an environmental investigation to determine the outbreak's source and mode of transmission. Of 1823 persons interviewed, 341 (18·7%) met the outbreak case definition; 70 (20·5%) were hospitalized, 25 (7·3%) developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome, and one died. Multiple food items were significantly associated with illness by both bivariate and multivariate analyses, but none stood out as a predominant transmission vehicle. All water, food, and restaurant surface swabs, and stool cultures from nine ill employees were negative for the presence of Shiga toxin and E. coli O111:NM although epidemiological evidence suggested the outbreak resulted from cross-contamination of restaurant food from food preparation equipment or surfaces, or from an unidentified infected food handler.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between hepatitis B virus (HBV) covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) in the ovary and vertical transmission of HBV. HBV DNA and HBV cccDNA were assayed in the ovaries of 33 pregnant women who were positive for HBV DNA. The HBVM (HBV markers, including HBsAg, HBsAb, HBeAg, HBeAb, HBcAb) level and the HBV DNA content in peripheral blood of infants were measured. The overall positive rate of HBV DNA and HBV cccDNA in samples was 51·52% (17/33). The intrauterine infection rate of the infants was 12·12% (4/33). When HBV DNA and HBV cccDNA were both positive, the intrauterine infection rate of infants was significantly higher than when they were both negative (P<0·05). Levels of HBV cccDNA and the rate of positive samples were significantly higher in mothers with infants with intrauterine infection than in those without (P<0·01 and P<0·05, respectively). HBV can infect the human ovary and may transmit to the filial generation via the ovum.

We analysed two large national surveys conducted in 2001 and 2008 to examine incidence and outcomes of gastroenteritis in older Australians. A case was someone reporting ⩾3 loose stools or ⩾1 episode of vomiting in 24 h, excluding non-infectious causes. We compared cases arising in the elderly (⩾65 years) and in other adults (20–64 years). Elderly people experienced 0·33 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0·24–0·42] episodes of gastroenteritis/person per year, compared to 0·95 (95% CI 0·74–1·15) in other adults. Elderly cases reported less stomach cramps, fever and myalgia than younger cases, and were more likely to be hospitalized, although this was not statistically significant. In multivariable analysis, gastroenteritis in elderly people was associated with travelling within the state (odds ratio 1·35, 95% CI 1·07–1·71). Elderly people were less concerned about food safety than other adults. Older Australians were less likely to report gastroenteritis and experienced different symptoms and outcomes from other adults.

In a cohort of 272 treatment-naive individuals with chronic hepatitis C infection acquired on a known date who were enrolled in the UK HCV National Register, a progressive improvement in response to treatment was found with the evolution of antiviral therapies from 20% (25/122) for interferon monotherapy to 63% (55/88) for pegylated interferon+ribavirin therapy. Multivariable analysis results showed increasing age to be associated with poorer response to therapy [odds ratio (OR) 0·84, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0·72–0·99, P=0·03] whereas time since infection was not associated with response (OR 0·93, 95% CI 0·44–1·98, P=0·85). Other factors significantly associated with a positive response were non-type 1 genotype (P<0·0001) and combination therapies (P<0·0001). During the first two decades of chronic HCV infection, treatment at a younger age was found to be more influential in achieving a sustained viral response than treating earlier in the course of infection.

We sought to explain seasonality and other aspects of Campylobacter jejuni epidemiology by integrating population genetic and epidemiological analysis in a large 3-year longitudinal, two-centre, population-based study. Epidemiological information was collected for 1505 isolates, which were multilocus sequence-typed. Analyses compared pathogen population structure between areas, over time, and between clinical presentations. Pooled analysis was performed with published international datasets. Subtype association with virulence was not observed. UK sites had nearly identical C. jejuni populations. A clade formed by ST45 and ST283 clonal complexes showed a summer peak. This clade was common in a Finnish dataset but not in New Zealand and Australian collections, countries with less marked seasonality. The UK, New Zealand and Australian collections were otherwise similar. These findings map to known in-vitro differences of this clade. This identifies a target for studies to elucidate the drivers of the summer peak in human C. jejuni infection.

From January 2009 to May 2010, 436 faecal samples from patients with diarrhoeal illnessin Southern Ireland were identified as Campylobacter genus-positive by an automated multiplex PCR; however, 204 (46·8%) of these samples were culture-negative for campylobacters. A combination of Campylobacter-specific uniplex PCR and 16S rRNA sequencing confirmed the presence of Campylobacter DNA in 191 (93·6%) of the culture-negative samples. Species-specific PCR identified C. jejuni (50·7%) C. ureolyticus (41%) and C. coli (5·7%) as the most prevalent species while C. fetus, C. upsaliensis, C. hyointestinalis and C. lari accounted for 10% of culture-negative samples; mixed Campylobacter spp. were detected in 11% of samples. We conclude that non-culturable Campylobacter spp. are responsible for a considerable proportion of human enteritis and the true incidence of infection is likely to be significantly underestimated where conventional Campylobacter culture methods are used in isolation.

More than 70% of reported human Salmonella infections in Norway are infected abroad. The Canary Islands and Thailand are two of the most popular charter tourist destinations for Norwegians. Using surveillance data for the years 1994–2008, and denominator data on travel to the Canary Islands 2000–2008 and to Thailand 1997–2008, we present the epidemiology and trends of Salmonella infections in Norwegian tourists to these destinations. We found a declining trend in risk of salmonellosis in tourists returning from the Canary Islands, and a change in serovar distribution in travellers to Thailand with more S. Enteritidis infections, similar to that observed in Western European countries. The use of denominator data is important when studying risk of travel-related disease, as surveillance data tend to reflect travel activity more than the risk. Infections among tourists do not always affect the local residents and therefore may not be detected by local public health authorities. Sharing knowledge on the epidemiology of infections in tourists could be useful for observation of changes in trends in the countries visited, and in future outbreak investigations.

The Poisson model can be applied to the count of events occurring within a specific time period. The main feature of the Poisson model is the assumption that the mean and variance of the count data are equal. However, this equal mean-variance relationship rarely occurs in observational data. In most cases, the observed variance is larger than the assumed variance, which is called overdispersion. Further, when the observed data involve excessive zero counts, the problem of overdispersion results in underestimating the variance of the estimated parameter, and thus produces a misleading conclusion. We illustrated the use of four models for overdispersed count data that may be attributed to excessive zeros. These are Poisson, negative binomial, zero-inflated Poisson and zero-inflated negative binomial models. The example data in this article deal with the number of incidents involving human papillomavirus infection. The four models resulted in differing statistical inferences. The Poisson model, which is widely used in epidemiology research, underestimated the standard errors and overstated the significance of some covariates.

We determined the prevalence of Entamoeba (E.) histolytica, E. dispar and E. moshkovskii in patients with chronic diarrhoea associated with abdominal pain or discomfort mimicking irritable bowel syndrome. Stool samples were collected from 161 patients with chronic diarrhoea and from 157 healthy controls. Stool microscopy with modified trichrome stain, culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Entamoeba spp. differentiation was performed. Microscopy demonstrated Entamoeba cysts in 44% (57/129) of patients with diarrhoea compared to 29% (44/151) of controls (P=0·009). In patients with diarrhoea, PCR for E. histolytica was positive in 9% (11/129) (P=0·008), E. dispar in 19% (24/129) (P=0·117) and E. moshkovskii in 19% (24/129) (P<0·001). E. histolytica and E. moshkovskii were significantly associated with diarrhoea while E. dispar was found equally in both groups.

There is concern that widespread usage of ertapenem may promote cross-resistance to other carbapenems. To analyse the impact that adding ertapenem to our hospital formulary had on usage of other broad-spectrum agents and on susceptibilities of nosocomial Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas isolates, we performed interrupted time-series analyses to determine the change in linear trend in antibiotic usage and change in mean proportion and linear trend of susceptibility pre- (March 2004–June 2005) and post- (July 2005–December 2008) ertapenem introduction. Usage of piperacillin-tazobactam (P=0·0013) and ampicillin-sulbactam (P=0·035) declined post-ertapenem introduction. For Enterobacteriaceae, the mean proportion susceptible to ciprofloxacin (P=0·016) and piperacillin-tazobactam (P=0·038) increased, while the linear trend in susceptibility significantly increased for cefepime (P=0·012) but declined for ceftriaxone (P=0·0032). For Pseudomonas, the mean proportion susceptible to cefepime (P=0·011) and piperacillin-tazobactam (P=0·028) increased, as did the linear trend in susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (P=0·028). Notably, no significant changes in carbapenem susceptibility were observed.

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) is a common pathogen causing foodborne infections, bacteraemia, and extra-intestinal focal infections (EFIs) in humans. The study compares the clinical characteristics of elderly patients with NTS bacteraemia with those of young adults. Of 272 adults with NTS bacteraemia identified in this study, 162 (59·6%) were aged ⩾55 years. EFIs were observed in 36% of the 162 patients. The most common EFIs in the elderly patients (⩾55 years) was mycotic aneurysm, followed by pulmonary infections and bone/joint infections. Elderly patients more often had chronic heart, lung, renal and malignant diseases, had more EFIs, and a higher 30-day mortality rate. Independent factors of 30-day mortality in elderly patients were solid-organ tumour [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 4·4, P=0·003], mycotic aneurysm (aOR 3·7, P=0·023) and shock (aOR 12·1, P<0·0001). HIV infection, autoimmune diseases, and receipt of immunosuppressive therapy were more often observed in young patients.

The purpose of this study was to understand the seasonal, geographical and clinical characteristics of Taiwanese patients hospitalized for non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infections and their economic burden. Hospital data obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance (NHI) database between 2006 and 2008 were analysed. Infants had the highest annual incidence of 525 cases/100 000 person-years. Elderly patients aged >70 years had the highest in-hospital mortality rate (2·6%). Most (82·6%) gastroenteritis occurred in children aged <10 years. Septicaemia, pneumonia, arthritis and osteomyelitis occurred mainly in patients aged >50 years. A median medical cost for NTS-associated hospitalizations was higher for patients with septicaemia than for those with gastroenteritis. Seasonal variation of NTS-associated hospitalizations was correlated with temperature in different areas of Taiwan. In summary, infants had a high incidence of NTS-associated hospitalizations. However, the elderly had a higher in-hospital mortality rate and more invasive NTS infections than children.

Robust disease burden estimates are important for decision-making concerning introduction of new vaccines. Dengue is a major public health problem in the tropics but robust disease burden estimates are lacking. We conducted a two-sample, capture–recapture study in the largest province in Cambodia to determine disease under-recognition to the National Dengue Surveillance System (NDSS). During 2006–2008, community-based active surveillance for acute febrile illness was conducted in 0- to 19-year-olds in rural and urban areas combined with testing for dengue virus infection. Of 14 354 individuals under active surveillance (22 498 person-seasons), the annual incidence ranged from 13·4 to 57·8/1000 person-seasons. During the same period, NDSS incidence rates ranged from 1·1/1000 to 5·7/1000, which was 3·9- to 29·0-fold lower than found in the capture–recapture study. In hospitalized cases, the rate of under-recognition was 1·1- to 2·4-fold. This study shows the substantial degree of under-recognition/reporting of dengue and that reported hospitalized cases are not a good surrogate for estimating dengue disease burden.

Given the unpredictability of Neisseria meningitidis outbreaks and the increased prevalence of serogroup C strains following the introduction of serogroup A-based vaccines, we conducted an analysis of serogroups and sequence types (STs) in disease-associated and carrier N. meningitidis isolates that have emerged in China since 2003. We used multilocus sequence-typing techniques to investigate 371 N. meningitidis strains isolated from patients with meningitis and healthy carriers. Two lineages were identified in serogroup A and C isolates, genotyped as the ST5 complex and ST4821 complex, respectively. Both clonal complexes were found throughout China, although ST4821 was more concentrated in the eastern region of the country. The ST5 complex has been persistent in China since the late 1980s and has since spread across the entire country. Isolates belonging to the ST4821 complex have been a dominant lineage since 2003.

Information on the burden of hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease is needed to inform policy decisions on primary and secondary prevention. Specimen-based laboratory data (1989–2004) were converted to person-based data and combined with notification data (2004–2009) to describe the burden of HCV infection in Ireland. More than 10 000 people were confirmed as HCV infected in 1989–2004, with the numbers peaking in 2000. The predominant genotypes were 1 (55%) and 3 (39%). Drug use was the most likely risk factor in 80%, with receipt of blood or blood products in 16%. It is estimated that 20 000–50 000 people in Ireland are chronically infected with HCV, a population prevalence of 0·5–1·2%, which is similar to other countries in Northern Europe. This is the first published estimate of the number of chronic HCV infections in Ireland. These data will be of value in health service planning and will contribute to the understanding of HCV infection in Europe.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is now considered an endemic pathogen in industrialized countries, leading to acute and sometimes chronic hepatitis, mostly in vulnerable people. The endemic sources are unclear. A survey in The Netherlands in 2006–2007 showed a 1·9% seroprevalence of HEV antibodies measured by ELISA and confirmed by immunoblot in a nationwide sample. Overall, in 134/7072 (1·9%) seropositive individuals, older age (P<0·01), being male (P<0·01), working with patients (P=0·03), working with animals (P=0·07), recent diarrhoeal complaints (P=0·07) and adhering to a religion that considers pigs unclean (P<0·01) were independently associated with seropositivity in multivariate analysis. Sub-analysis of 59/4022 (1·5%) anti-HEV antibody-positive subjects with probable endemic exposure showed independent association with youngest household member being aged <5 years or between 19 and <65 years (P=0·05) in multivariate analysis. These findings may contribute to a better understanding of the sources of endemic HEV exposure, and also highlight the need for systematic epidemiological and serological evaluation of new cases.

This study investigated individual and contextual factors associated with the duration of diarrhoeal episodes in 693 young children living in a large Brazilian city who were followed-up for at least 3 months. The outcome is analysed as a continuous variable, by means of a hierarchical conceptual model organizing the factors in meaningful blocks. A total of 2397 episodes were recorded (median duration 2 days, interquartile range 1–3 days). Low percentage of households connected to the sewerage system in the neighbourhood, low family purchasing power, high agglomeration, mother aged <19 years, low zinc content in child's diet, and episode severity were significantly associated with longer duration (0·26–0·69 days more). Purchasing power effect was largely mediated by environmental conditions, characteristics of the child, and hygienic behaviour. Environmental conditions acted as a possible effect modifier, enhancing the effect on duration of diarrhoea of the child not having being vaccinated against measles or breastfed for >6 months.