To determine adherence to Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) methods and to evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food-services staff with regard to food hygiene in hospitals.

A survey.

Hospital medical directors and food-services staff of 36 hospitals in Calabria, Italy.

A questionnaire about hospital characteristics, food-services organization, and measures and procedures for the control and prevention of foodborne diseases was sent to medical directors; a questionnaire about demographic and practice characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors about control and prevention of foodborne diseases was sent to food-services staff. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed.

Only 54% of the 27 responding hospitals were using the HACCP system and, of those using HACCP, 79% adopted a food-hygiene–practice manual; more than one half already had developed written procedures for food storage, personal hygiene, cleaning and disinfection; one half or less performed microbiological assessment of foods and surfaces. Of the 290 food-services staff who responded, 78.8% were aware of the five leading food-borne pathogens; this knowledge was significantly higher among those with a higher educational level and those who worked in hospitals that had implemented the HACCP system. Younger staff and those who had attended continuing educational courses about food hygiene and hospital foodborne diseases had a significantly higher knowledge of safe temperatures for food storage. A positive attitude toward foodborne-diseases prevention was reported by the great majority, and it was significantly higher in older respondents and in those working in hospitals with a lower number of beds. Only 54.9% of those involved in touching or serving unwrapped raw or cooked foods routinely used gloves during this activity; this practice was significantly greater among younger respondents and in those working in hospitals using HACCP.

Full implementation of the HACCP system and infection control policies in hospital food services is needed.

To study both surgical and nonsurgical nosocomial infections (NIs) seen by primary-care physicians (general practitioners [GPs]) in France.

Ongoing surveillance of postdischarge NIs by an organized group of GPs, from August 1997 to July 1999. Both the GP who personally examined the case spontaneously presenting with NI and the responsible hospital physician or surgeon were interviewed by telephone.

305 general practices from all French regions.

2,199 (29%) of 7,540 patients referred for hospitalization reconsulted the GP within 30 days of discharge. In 21 (1%) of the 2,199 cases, an NI was diagnosed by the GP and confirmed as plausible by the responsible hospital physician. We diagnosed an NI in 8 (1.3%) of the post-surgical patients and in 13 (0.8%) of the non-surgical cases within the cohort We saw eight urinary tract infections, seven surgical-site infections, three soft-tissue infections, two respiratory tract infections, and one primary bloodstream infection. In 19 patients (90%), clinical signs of NI appeared within 7 days of discharge. Assuming that all 5,431 patients who were missed for follow-up did not experience any NI, an attack rate of 0.3 per 100 admissions may be estimated for the whole group.

We diagnosed 1% of NIs following discharge from a hospital in a cohort of 2,199 patients, of which 1.3% were seen post-surgery and 0.8% following nonsurgical admissions. The percentage of postdischarge visits that were for an NI in nonsurgical patients warrants a major effort with feedback to the hospital physician to reduce infection rates.

To determine the costs associated with the management of hospitalized patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and to estimate the economic burden associated with MRSA in Canadian hospitals.

Patient-specific costs were used to determine the attributable cost of MRSA associated with excess hospitalization and concurrent treatment. Excess hospitalization for infected patients was identified using the Appropriateness Evaluation Protocol, a criterion-based chart review process to determine the need for each day of hospitalization. Concurrent treatment costs were identified through chart review for days in isolation, antimicrobial therapy, and MRSA screening tests. The economic burden to Canadian hospitals was estimated based on 3,167,521 hospital discharges for 1996 and 1997 and an incidence of 4.12 MRSA cases per 1,000 admissions.

A tertiary-care, university-affiliated teaching hospital in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Inpatients with at least one culture yielding MRSA between April 1996 and March 1998.

A total of 20 patients with MRSA infections and 79 colonized patients (with 94 admissions) were identified. This represented a rate of 2.9 MRSA cases per 1,000 admissions. The mean number of additional hospital days attributable to MRSA infection was 14, with 11 admissions having at least 1 attributable day. The total attributable cost to treat MRSA infections was $287,200, or $14,360 per patient. The cost for isolation and management of colonized patients was $128,095, or $1,363 per admission. Costs for MRSA screening in the hospital were $109,813. Assuming an infection rate of 10% to 20%, we determined the costs associated with MRSA in Canadian hospitals to be $42 million to $59 million annually.

These results indicate that there is a substantial economic burden associated with MRSA in Canadian hospitals. These costs will continue to rise if the incidence of MRSA increases further.

To describe an outbreak of imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (IR-Ab) and the measures for its control, and to investigate risk factors for IR-Ab acquisition.

An observational and a case-control study.

A surgical intensive care unit (ICU) in a university tertiary care hospital.

After admission to the ICU of an IR-Ab-positive patient, patients were prospectively screened for IR-Ab carriage upon admission and then once a week. Environmental cleaning and barrier safety measures were used for IR-Ab carriers. A case-control study was performed to identify factors associated with IR-Ab acquisition. Cases were patients who acquired IR-Ab. Controls were patients who were hospitalized in the ICU at the same time as cases and were exposed to IR-Ab for a similar duration as cases. The following variables were investigated as potential risk factors: baseline characteristics, scores for severity of illness and therapeutic intervention, presence and duration of invasive procedures, and antimicrobial administration.

Beginning in May 1996, the outbreak involved 17 patients over 9 months, of whom 12 acquired IR-Ab (cases), 4 had IR-Ab isolates on admission to the ICU, and 1 could not be classified. Genotypic analysis identified two different IR-Ab isolates, responsible for three clusters. Ten of the 12 nosocomial cases developed infection. Control measures included reinforcement of barrier safety measures, limitation of the number of admissions, and thorough environmental cleaning. No new case was identified after January 1997. Eleven of the 12 cases could be compared to 19 controls. After adjustment for severity of illness, a high individual therapeutic intervention score appeared to be a risk factor for IR-Ab acquisition.

The outbreak ended after strict application of control measures. Our results suggest that high work load contributes to IR-Ab acquisition.

To determine the cause of fever in critically ill children and to identify opportunities for reducing antibiotic use in this population.

Prospective case series.

A tertiary-care medical-surgical pediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

Children admitted to the PICU who experienced fever (axillary temperature >38.3°C).

Consecutive children who were febrile at any point in their PICU stay were investigated over two winter seasons. Etiology of the fever was determined by physical examination and routine microbiology and radiographic tests. Three subgroups were reviewed to approximate the number of antibiotic-days that could have been reduced; namely, those with an indeterminate source, those with a documented viral infection, and those receiving a prolonged course of antibiotics. A set of standards reflecting common antibiotic use then was applied to these three patient groups.

Of 211 subjects, the majority (83.3%) had either a definitive or suspected focus for their fever, and nearly all of these patients were judged to have an infectious etiology. The study population received a total of 2,036 antibiotic-days. Despite the high incidence of infectious causes of fever in our subjects, however, approximately 15% of total antibiotic-days could have been reduced by applying common-use standards.

Fever in the PICU was usually of defined focus and infectious in origin. However, among febrile patients in the PICU, substantial opportunity exists for reduction of antibiotic use. Trials determining the safety of antibiotic reduction in this population should be pursued vigorously.

To determine the type of media preferred for continuing medical education (CME) and to assess the factors that affect physician preferences for CME in general and on the special topic of antimicrobial resistance.

A voluntary survey of the membership of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America, Inc. (SHEA).

SHEA in collaboration with other medical societies and with technical assistance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, designed and mailed the survey to its membership. The survey included questions about media used, preferred, and of interest to try for CME delivery in general and on the topic of antimicrobial resistance in specific. The survey also included demographic and general questions, such as work environment, percentage of time in direct patient care, and experience treating patients with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.

225 SHEA members completed the survey. The majority of physicians were in clinical practice (59%) and worked in a hospital (57%). The median year of graduation from medical school was 1979 (range, 1951-1999). CME subject matter (46%) was ranked as the most important factor affecting media preference. Journal articles (52%) were the most frequently used educational medium; local grand rounds (53%) and regional meetings (53%) were the most preferred media. CD-ROM (56%) and the Internet (46%) were selected as media of greatest interest to try. On the topic of antimicrobial resistance, the most frequently used and the preferred medium was journal articles (67% and 87%, respectively). Most (94%) had received an educational update on current antimicrobial resistance issues within the past year. Stratification of the data by graduation date revealed no significant differences in the medical education media used most (F=0.59, degrees of freedom [df]=4, P=.6715) or preferred by SHEA members in general or on the topic of antimicrobial resistance (F=1.99, df=4, P=.0982).

This study provides an understanding of how physicians learn, prefer to learn, and implement best practices for optimal patient outcomes in decreasing the spread of antimicrobial resistance.