This article explores the evolving relationship between li (rites) and fa (law) in early China amidst social transformations. It demonstrates that although li and law initially existed in tension following the publication of penal law in the late Spring and Autumn period, they gradually moved towards the process of reconciliation through Shang Yang’s legal reforms in Qin and Xunzi’s theoretical synthesis during the Warring States period. Ultimately, the integration of li into Qin’s legal framework marked the culmination of this process, with li and law collectively structuring the state’s social and familial hierarchies. The article demonstrates that the convergence of li and law was based on their shared nature as impersonal and authoritative rules regulating socio-political life beyond specific circumstances, while their differing scopes and methods of enforcement were gradually harmonised.

This paper intends to investigate the mutual benefits of examining sexual minority people’s rights in Hong Kong and Confucianism. It has four objectives. Firstly, it aims to discuss the components of Confucianism. Secondly, it seeks to explore three strategies for promoting Confucianism: ‘Ren’, ‘Li’, and ‘Ideal Society’. Thirdly, it aims to demonstrate how analysing these strategies can enhance our understanding of the relationship between sexual minority rights in Hong Kong and Confucianism. To achieve this objective, it undertakes two analytical tasks: first, to evaluate criticisms of efforts aimed at strengthening sexual minority people’s rights in Hong Kong through the lens of these three strategies; and second, to assess the potential usefulness of these strategies in exploring the compatibility between the sexual minority people’s ways of life and Confucianism. Finally, the paper aims to examine how studying sexual minority people’s rights in Hong Kong can contribute to the discussion of the Confucian welfare model.

Silicon electrodes with the columnar macroporous structure were investigated to determine the effect of variations in the columnar pore morphology on lithiation and energy storage capacity in Li-ion cells. Several variants of macroporous Si columnar electrodes were electrochemically cycled against the Li reference electrode. The changes in macro-pore size and Si wall thickness of the columnar architecture greatly affected the cyclic Li storage and discharge capacities. A strong correlation of the Li-storage capacity with the ratio of Si wall thickness to pore diameter is found to exist. Specifically, one columnar Si electrode with an optimum macroporous structure exhibited a very high reversible specific capacity of ~1250 mAh/g (total capacity 1.2 mAh/cm2) for over 200 cycles. Electron microscopy revealed that the high reversible Li-storage capacity is due to the macropores accommodating the change in volume of lithiation and providing nearly complete reconstruction of Si walls upon delithiation. The present observations can lead to practical, high-capacity, and damage-resistant Si electrodes for Li-ion batteries.

LiMnxCoyNi1−x−yO2 (LMCNO) has been broadly investigated and commercialized primarily as lithium ion battery (LIB) cathodes, owing to its high operating voltage, large energy density, and superior electronic conductivity. However, poor cycling stability induced by the rapid structure degradation limits their further development. Coating is regarded as a very effective strategy to address the problem of structure degradation. Regrettably, the coating layers obtained by traditional methods are usually thick, which is not appropriate for delivering of integrated performance. As an emerging coating technology, atomic layer deposition (ALD) demonstrates immeasurable advantages in deposition of ultrathin coating materials because of its atomic-level precision, and has been widely applied in construction of the coating layers on LMCNO substrate materials. Herein, we firstly outline the development and mechanism of ALD technology, and then systematically summarize intrinsic reasons for the enhanced electrochemical performance. Finally, we propose new insights toward designing and preparing the coating structure of LMCNO cathodes by controllable ALD for the next-generation LIBs.

A scalable battery recycling strategy to recover and regenerate solid electrolytes and cathode materials in spent all solid-state batteries, reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gases.

With the rapidly increasing ubiquity of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sustainable battery recycling is a matter of growing urgency. The major challenge faced in LIB sustainability lies with the fact that the current LIBs are not designed for recycling, making it difficult to engineer recycling approaches that avoid breaking batteries down into their raw materials. Thus, it is prudent to explore new approaches to both fabricate and recycle next-generation batteries before they enter the market. Here, we developed a sustainable design and scalable recycling strategy for next-generation all solid-state batteries (ASSBs). We use the EverBatt model to analyze the relative energy consumption and environmental impact compared to conventional recycling methods. We demonstrate efficient separation and recovery of spent solid electrolytes and electrodes from a lithium metal ASSB and directly regenerate them into usable formats without damaging their core chemical structure. The recycled materials are then reconstituted to fabricate new batteries, achieving similar performance as pristine ASSBs, completing the cycle. This work demonstrates the first fully recycled ASSB and provides critical design consideration for future sustainable batteries.

Ion beam analyses were completed on single crystal LiD (lithium hydride with deuterium on the hydrogen sites) to determine products of hydrolysis with decarbonated H2O (with protium-hydrogen) in an inert gas. Rutherford backscattering spectrometry showed movement of oxygen into the bulk of LiD samples. Hydrolysis rates for the single crystal LiD showed relatively slow initial growth of an oxygen-containing layer. Final growth rates varied widely with H2O level, from 1010 to 1015 (atoms/cm2)/min. at 5.6 and 28 mmol/min. H2O respectively. Simulations of spectra show the hydrolysis product to be LiOH. Elastic recoil detection identifies the hydrogen in the hydroxide layer upon dosing with H2O (with natural, protiated hydrogen) as primarily protium. Micrographs showed island growth occurring initially, with convergence to a full-coverage hydrolysis layer.

The design of high energy Li-ion batteries (LIBs) by coupling high voltage LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LNMO) cathode and Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode ensures effective and safe energy-storage. LTO–LNMO full-cells (FCs) with difference in electrode grain sizes and presence of excess Mn3+ in cathode were studied using micron-sized commercial LTO, nanostructured LTO donuts (LTOd), P4332 LNMO nanopowders, and nanostructured Fd3m LNMO caterpillars (LNMOcplr). Among the studied FCs, LTOd–LNMOcplr was detected with a stable capacity of 69 mA h/g (1C rate), 99% coulombic efficiency, and 87% capacity retention under 200 cycles of continuous charge–discharge studies. The superior electrochemical performance observed in LTOd–LNMOcplr FC was due to the low charge transfer resistance, which is corroborated to the effect of grain sizes and the longer retention of Mn3+ in the electrodes. An effective and simple FC design incorporating both nanostructuring and in situ conductivity in electrode materials would aid in developing future high-performance LIBs.

Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) and Hybrid LICs (H-LICs) were assembled as three-layered pouch cells in an asymmetric configuration employing Faradaic pre-lithiated hard carbon anodes and non-Faradaic ion adsorption-desorption activated carbon (AC) cathodes for LICs and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4-LFP)/AC composite cathodes for H-LICs. The room temperature rate performance was evaluated after the initial LIC and H-LIC cell formation as a function of the electrolyte additives. The capacity retention was measured after charging at high temperature conditions, while the design factor explored was electrolyte additive formulation, with a focus on their stability. The high temperature potential holds simulate electrochemical energy materials under extreme environments and act to accelerate the failure mechanisms associated with cell degradation to determine robust electrolyte/additive combinations.

We attempt to reveal how electrolyte additives affect the structural evolution of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film on the anode surface of a lithium-ion secondary battery. Employing the hybrid Monte-Carlo/molecular-dynamics method, we theoretically investigate the SEI film structures in organic liquid-electrolyte systems with and without an organosilicon additive. The results show that the excessive growth of the SEI film is suppressed by introducing the organosilicon additives. It is further elucidated that the decomposition products of the organosilicon molecules are stably aggregated in the vicinity of the anode surface, and protect the electrolyte solvents and the lithium salts from the further reductive decomposition. These findings imply that the organosilicon additive possibly improves the cycle performance of LIBs owing to the formation of the effective SEI film.

High-rate lithium ion batteries with long cycling lives can provide electricity grid stabilization services in the presence of large fractions of intermittent generators, such as photovoltaics. Engineering for high rate and long cycle life requires an appropriate selection of materials for both electrode and electrolyte and an understanding of how these materials degrade with use. High-rate lithium ion batteries can also facilitate faster charging of electric vehicles and provide higher energy density alternatives to supercapacitors in mass transport applications.

High-rate lithium ion batteries can play a critical role in decarbonizing our energy systems both through their underpinning of the transition to use renewable energy resources, such as photovoltaics, and electrification of transport. Their ability to be rapidly and frequently charged and discharged can enable this energy storage technology to play a key role in stabilizing future low-carbon electricity networks which integrate large fractions of intermittent renewable energy generators. This decarbonizing transition will require lithium ion technology to provide increased power and longer cycle lives at reduced cost. Rate performance and cycle life are ultimately limited by the materials used and the kinetics associated with the charge transfer reactions and ionic and electronic conduction. We review material strategies for electrode materials and electrolytes that can facilitate high rates and long cycle lives and discuss the important issues of cost, resource availability and recycling.

High-energy lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries still suffer from poor rate capability and short cycle life caused by the polysulfides shuttle and insulating nature of S (and the discharge product, Li2S). Selenium disulfide (SeS2), with a theoretical specific capacity of 1342 mAh g−1, is a promising cathode material as it has better conductivity compared to sulfur. The electrochemical reaction kinetics of CNFs-S/SeS2 composites (denoted as CNFs/S1-xSex, where x ≤ 0.1) are expected to be remarkably improved because of the better conductivity of SeS2 compared to sulfur. Here, a high-performance composite cathode material of CNFs/S1-xSex for novel Li-S batteries is reported. The CNFs/S1-xSex composites combine the higher conductivity and higher density of SeS2 with high specific capacity of sulfur. The CNFs/S1-xSex electrode shows good initial discharge capacity of ∼1050 mAh g−1 at 0.05 C rate with high mass loading of materials (∼6-7 mg cm−2 of composites) and > 97% initial coulombic efficiency. The CNFs/S1-xSex electrode shows more than 600 mAh g-1 specific capacity after 50 charge-discharge cycles at 0.5C rate, much higher compared to the CNFs/S cathodes.

Li[Lix/3Mn2x/3M1−x]O2 (M = Ni, Mn, Co) (HE-NMC) materials, which can be expressed as a combination of trigonal LiTMO2 (TM = transition metal) and monoclinic Li2MnO3 phases, are of great interest as high capacity cathodes for lithium-ion batteries. However, structural stability prevents their commercial adoption. To address this, Si doping was applied, resulting in improved stability. Raman and differential capacity analyses suggest that silicon doping improves the structural stability during electrochemical cycling. Furthermore, the doped material exhibits a 10% higher capacity relative to the control. The superior capacity likely results from the increased lattice parameters as determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the lower resistance during the first cycle found by impedance and direct current resistance (DCR) measurements. Density functional theory (DFT) predictions suggest that the observed lattice expansion is an indication of increased oxygen vacancy concentration and may be due to the Si doping.

Energy-savvy auto-combustion synthesis was used to form the porous BaLi2Ti6O14 titanate anode. It registered the lowest calcination temperature (800 °C) along with the shortest calcination duration (2 h). Rietveld analysis confirmed the purity of the orthorhombic (s.g. Cmca) product phase. The bond valence site energy analysis indicated a 1D ionic conduction along c axis with low activation energy and 2D pathways along (010) with high activation energy. AC conductivity analysis revealed a bulk conductivity of 2.41 × 10−4 S/cm (at 300 °C) with a moderate activation energy barrier (0.68 eV). From cyclic voltammetry, the Li+ diffusion coefficient was calculated to be 10−11–10−12 cm2/s. The as-synthesized BaLi2Ti6O14 reversibly intercalated ∼1.3 Li+ involving a 1.42 V Ti4+/Ti3+ redox activity delivering capacity ∼100 mA h/g with good cyclability over 100 cycles. Furthermore, BaLi2Ti6O14 was found to reversibly intercalate ∼0.89 Na+. With suitable diffusional and electrochemical performance, BaLi2Ti6O14 form a safe titanate anode for secondary batteries.

Historically, batteries with lithium metal anodes have been a hazard, as the lithium becomes rough and eventually finely divided during cycling. The promise of higher energy density, however, continues to drive the search for novel approaches to manage this light and reactive material. Significant improvement has been achieved by designing new liquid-electrolyte compositions and interface barriers to stabilize the lithium in traditional batteries, but it is clear that solid-state batteries ensure a higher level of safety and perhaps higher energy density and lifetimes. The materials challenge then is to fabricate a cost-effective solid electrolyte that effectively maintains lithium as a dense uniform metal layer. This article describes the ideal cycling behavior of lithium and progress toward this goal of a solid electrolyte using glassy, ceramic, polymer, and composite electrolytes, as well as the challenges that continue to arise toward long-term, high-rate, and efficient cycling of lithium metal.

Solid-state batteries are promising candidates for energy storage due to their potential advantages in safety, working temperature range, and energy density compared to traditional liquid-electrolyte-based batteries. Rational battery architecture design and a scalable fabrication approach are critical to realize solid-state batteries. In this article, we present the architecture, fabrication procedure, and related challenges of sulfide and oxide electrolyte-based solid-state batteries. Approaches toward intimate solid−solid contact, thin solid-electrolyte fabrication, and scale-up production are discussed. Finally, we discuss the future research directions of solid-state batteries.

Solid-state electrolytes can offer improved lithium-ion battery safety while potentially increasing the energy density by enabling alkali metal anodes. There have been significant research efforts to improve the ionic conductivity of solid-state electrolytes and the electrochemical performance of all-solid-state batteries; however, the root causes of their poor performance—interfacial reaction and subsequent impedance growth—are poorly understood. This is due to the dearth of effective characterization techniques for probing these buried interfaces. In situ and operando methodologies are currently under development for solid-state interfaces, and they offer the potential to describe the dynamic interfacial processes that serve as performance bottlenecks. This article highlights state-of-the-art solid–solid interface probing methodologies, describes practical limitations, and describes a future for dynamic interfacial characterization.

The [AlO4/M +]0 (where M = H, Li, Na and K) defects in α-quartz have been investigated by ab initio calculations at the density functional theory (DFT) level, using the CRYSTAL06 code, 72-atom supercells, and all-electron basis sets. Our DFT calculations yielded substantially improved results than previous cluster calculations with minimal basis sets. For example, the [AlO4/M +(a<)]0 defects with M = H, Li and Na have been shown to be more stable than their [AlO4/M +(a>)]0 structural analogues (where a> and a< denote the location of the charge-compensating ion on the long-bond and short-bond side respectively), correctly predicting the common occurrence of paramagnetic [AlO4/M +(a>)]+ centres. In addition, the [AlO4/K+]0 defects have been investigated for the first time and are shown to be stable in quartz. Moreover, our calculations confirm previous suggestions that incorporation of the [AlO4/M +]0 defects results in significant structural relaxations that extend at least to the nearest Si atoms and give Li—O and Na—O bond distances in better agreement with the experimentally obtained values. The present theoretical results on the [AlO4/M +]0 defects provide a more complete picture for the coupled Al3+—M + substitutions and hence new insights into crystal-chemical controls on the uptake of Al in quartz.

Si nanoparticles and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) were combined using the simple, inexpensive, and scalable approach involving ultrasonication and positive-pressure filtration to generate binder-free freestanding flexible Si–MWNT (Si–MW) composite paper anodes for Li-ion batteries. Through controlling the Si/carbon nanotube (CNT) weight ratio, the composite with 3:2 Si/CNT ratio exhibited the optimal balance between the high capacity of SiNPs and high conductivity and structural stabilization quality of MWNTs, leading to high rate capability as well as specific capacity and cyclability surpassing the conventional slurry-cast SiNP electrode using binder and current collector and other complicated freestanding Si/carbon composite designs. After 100 cycles, our electrode retained a capacity of 1170 mA h/g at 100 mA/g and 750 mA h/g at 500 mA/g. Moreover, a different electrolyte composition enabled a reversible capacity of 1300 mA h/g at 100 mA/g after 100 cycles. The freestanding feature of our electrodes is promising for enhanced energy density of Li-ion cells.

Emerging applications require batteries to have both high energy and high power which are not necessarily compatible. The typical inverse relationship between power and energy in batteries is often due to the slow ion diffusion in electrode materials. While the optimization of current battery technology may be sufficient to fully address this issue, we present here that novel chemistry-focused strategies based on new fundamental understanding of materials may be applied to lead to the development of a new generation of batteries that store energy sufficiently and deliver it rapidly.