Submergence stress is a major constraint to rice production in flood-prone areas. Acclimation responses are well-documented for many abiotic stresses in rice; however, the ability of rice to acclimate to repeated submergence stress periods remains unexplored. In this study, we evaluated 15 rice varieties under both single- and double-submergence stress conditions to determine whether prior exposure enhances submergence tolerance. Repeated submergence significantly reduced grain yield (GY) across most genotypes, despite improved or sustained survival in submergence-tolerant varieties. Correlation and multivariate analyses revealed that GY was strongly associated with survival, tiller number, and panicle number, whereas shoot elongation contributed little to yield variation. Although some genotypes exhibited enhanced survival following repeated submergence, this advantage did not translate into improved yield, indicating that acclimation responses are limited to survival and did not extend to productivity. These findings highlight the need for breeding strategies that integrate survival with post-submergence recovery and yield stability under recurrent flooding conditions.

Rice cultivation is a major source of agricultural methane emissions, yet many mitigation strategies remain difficult to implement in smallholder systems because of labour, water management, and production constraints. We conducted a large, randomized field experiment in farmer-managed rainfed lowland rice systems to evaluate whether methanotroph-based microbial intervention can reduce methane emissions without compromising rice productivity. We randomly assigned experimental plots to methanotroph treatment, conventional chemical fertilizer, or a no-input control. We repeatedly measured methane emissions throughout the cropping cycle using the closed static chamber method with a portable NDIR methane sensor and recorded rice yield at harvest. Our mixed-effects analysis showed that methanotroph-treated plots consistently produced substantially lower methane emissions than both fertilizer-treated and control plots across all measurement rounds. Methanotroph treatment also substantially reduced methane intensity while maintaining rice yields comparable to those obtained under conventional fertilizer management. Joint analysis of emissions and yield outcomes showed that methanotroph-treated plots clustered toward lower emissions, yield-maintaining conditions relative to alternative management regimes. These findings suggest that methane-related emissions and methane intensity can be substantially reduced while maintaining rice yields under real smallholder management conditions.

In coffee (Coffea arabica L.), vegetative and reproductive growth occur simultaneously, creating strong competition for assimilates and constraining biomass allocation. Although fruits are the dominant sink, quantitative relationships between fruit load, vegetative growth, and harvest index (HI) remain poorly understood in perennial crops. We evaluated how fruit load regulates vegetative biomass accumulation, yield, and HI in field-grown coffee trees and proposed a practical framework to quantify biomass partitioning under contrasting reproductive demand. Three field experiments were conducted in southeastern Brazil over two growing seasons, where six fruit load levels (100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20%, and 0%) were manually imposed at the pinhead stage. Vegetative growth, leaf area, fruit yield, and aboveground biomass were measured. Increasing fruit load markedly reduced vegetative biomass by up to 79% compared with trees without fruits, suppressing leaf and branch development. Each kilogram of fruit dry matter produced was associated with a reduction of approximately 392 g of vegetative dry matter. HI increased with fruit load but stabilized at approximately 0.75 once fruit dry yield exceeded 1.4 kg tree−1, indicating a physiological upper limit to reproductive allocation. These values, based on branch and leaf biomass, represent an upper estimate because whole-plant HI including roots and perennial woody tissue would be lower. The plateau likely reflects the need to maintain sufficient vegetative structure to sustain photosynthesis and assimilate transport despite high reproductive demand. These results clarify source-sink regulation in coffee and provide a robust framework for estimating biomass partitioning with applications in crop management and growth modelling.

Simiao rice, a high-quality indica variety widely cultivated in South China’s double rice cropping systems is vital for regional food security. However, the seasonal and varietal responses of its grain yield and quality to nitrogen (N) application remain insufficiently understood. This two-year (2022–2023) field experiment investigated three N application rates (N1: 105, N2: 135, N3: 165 kg ha−1) on multiple Simiao rice varieties, focusing on grain yield, milling, and appearance qualities. Higher N rates had no significant effect on early rice yield, but significantly increased late rice yield. The two-year average yield of N1 (5.71 Mg ha−1) was lower than N2 (6.23 Mg ha−1) and N3 (6.51 Mg ha−1) (P < 0.05), attributed to increased total spikelets. For early rice, the two-year average head rice rate increased with N (41.4% for N1, 42.6% for N2, 43.7% for N3), mainly driven by improved quality in high-chalkiness varieties (MXZ2, GXYLSM, HFYYX, and QXY19X). These varieties exhibited reduced chalky grain rate (26.0–20.8%) and chalkiness (10.0–7.2%) with increasing N, while low-chalkiness varieties (19X, TX812, XZXSM, and XXZ) showed no significant changes. For late rice, N rates did not affect milling or appearance quality. This study clarified that N application exerts distinct seasonal and varietal effects on dual-use Simiao rice: increasing N application significantly enhances late rice grain yield while improving early rice milling and appearance quality. These findings provide critical insights into tailored N management for high-quality and high-yield Simiao rice production in South China’s double cropping system.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important crop in Zimbabwe, but the grain yields achieved are often only one tenth of their estimated potential. Low grain protein content and low biomass yields further constrain food quality and livestock feed availability on smallholder farms. To assess whether integrating legumes into maize-based cropping systems could improve yields, yield stability, and biomass, calorie and protein production, we tested six cropping systems in rainfed conditions under conservation agriculture in central Zimbabwe in two identical field experiments on soils with contrasting textures. The cropping systems included maize monoculture, maize rotated with pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) or cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.), maize-pigeon pea intercropping, and double-row strip crops of maize with pigeon pea or cowpea. Each system was tested with and without fertilizer (basal application 12 kg ha−1 N, 14 kg ha−1 P, 8 kg ha−1 K, plus two topdressings, each 26 kg N ha−1). Mean grain yields were highest in rotations (maize = 2855 kg ha−1, pigeon pea = 752 kg ha−1, cowpea = 567 kg ha−1). Rotations also had a high maize yield stability, comparable with the monoculture. However, total biomass, calories, and protein per hectare were highest in maize-pigeon pea strip cropping (5945 kg ha−1, 9.14million kcal ha−1, and 308 kg ha−1, respectively). Across all cropping systems, fertilizer enhanced system productivity, increasing maize yields by 88% on average. Overall, maize-pigeon pea strip cropping produced the most food and feed per unit land area, in both fertilized and unfertilized conditions.

Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa grow maize under highly variable agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, calling for breeding programmes that better address farmers’ conditions and needs. This study characterized farmers’ crop management practices and investigated genotype × environment (G × E) interaction patterns for maize yield in Eastern Zambia to guide the breeding strategy in this region. A participatory large-scale variety testing approach, comprising 980 mother and baby trials (MBTs) conducted under farmers’ own management practices, was implemented over the 2022 and 2023 seasons. Characterization of the MBT contexts revealed that adaptation to low nitrogen and delayed fertilization should be considered in the breeding strategy. In addition, delayed weedings explained a large proportion of genotype × farmer (G × F) interactions in both MT seasons, indicating that adaptation to weed pressure should deserve greater attention in breeding. These adaptation traits are particularly important for women, who provide most weeding labour and often have limited access to soil fertility resources. Non-repeatable G × F interactions across years, together with genotypic variance exceeding G × E interaction variance estimates, indicated that multi-year testing across MTs can identify superior and stable genotypes. At the same time, indications of specific adaptation to certain management conditions suggest potential for context-specific variety recommendations. This could offer a competitive advantage in Zambia’s maize seed market, where variety choice and information remain limited. Overall, decentralized farmer-managed testing underlined the importance of yield stability and generated reliable information on variety adaptation, while strengthening farmers’ capacity to make informed variety choices.

Aeroponics has emerged as a strategic technology for producing high-quality seed potatoes; however, its scientific basis remains methodologically fragmented. This systematic and critical review analyses 29 experimental studies published between 2021 and 2025, selected using a PRISMA-based protocol, to evaluate methodological consistency, genetic representativeness, and transparency in the presentation of results in aeroponic potato research. The results reveal a strong geographic concentration (mainly in India and China) and limited inclusion of key potato-producing regions such as the Andes and Western Europe. Although more than 80 cultivars are reported, their distribution is highly skewed towards a few breeding programmes, limiting their global applicability. High variability was identified in the plant material, environmental conditions, system configuration, nutrient solution composition, and agronomic variables evaluated, frequently reported with inconsistent units and a lack of methodological detail. These limitations reduce reproducibility and hinder comparability between studies. This review highlights the urgent need to establish minimum reporting standards and proposes a structured framework to improve experimental consistency. Moving towards methodological harmonization is essential to enable robust data integration and consolidate aeroponics as a reliable technology for global potato seed production systems.

Among the numerous changes produced by global climate change, the increased frequency of heat waves and droughts is of great concern to viticulture. These changes are threatening the continuity of vineyards in certain regions and under the same crop management. This review has synthesised current knowledge on the physiological, molecular, and hydraulic mechanisms that confer varying levels of drought and heat tolerance in grapevine rootstocks. The widely known rootstocks 110R, 1103P, and 140Ru exhibit contrasting isohydric or anisohydric behaviours, which affect stomatal regulation, water-use efficiency, and hydraulic conductance. In recent decades, new rootstocks (M and RG) have been developed with the aim of combining drought and heat tolerance with agronomic advantages. Plants with greater tolerance to water stress have specific xylem anatomy and root morphology that permit them to maintain water uptake and status. Regarding xylem vessels, vessel diameter and density influence water uptake and cavitation vulnerability. These characteristics, as well as aquaporin activity and hormone levels (abscisic acid and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid), are responsible for signalling stress responses and intermediating recovery. Heat stress also affects photosynthesis, phenology, and berry composition, also making oxidative damage. Plant active mechanisms such as the production of heat shock proteins and antioxidant systems for decreasing these effects. Actually, a problem when choosing the best rootstock-scion is that many studies describe individual processes, but few compare multiple rootstocks-scion under identical field conditions or evaluate combined drought and heat scenarios. Future research should shed light on in-depth questions regarding physiological, anatomical, and molecular mechanisms to identify genotypes with greater stress tolerance and inform breeding programmes. Selecting the appropriate rootstock and scion combination, along with vineyard management strategies, is key to maintaining grape production and wine quality in a warmer climate.

Agroecological practices rely on organic inputs to achieve sustainable food systems, often resulting in changes in soil environments. Yet, we have limited understanding on how soil changes impact crop physiology, including crop nutrient acquisition strategies, especially throughout the entire course of an agroecological transition. In this study, we applied a functional trait ecology lens to understand the effects of agroecological practices on crop physiology at various phases of transitioning from conventional agriculture to agroecological systems. To achieve this, we studied 44 maize growing farms in three regions of central India to measure crop leaf and root trait expression shifts over five identified phases of transitioning to natural farming systems. Our results reveal significantly higher variability in maize root traits compared to leaf traits, with specific root length, specific root area, and specific root length density exhibiting the widest variation. Root traits exhibited strong sensitivity to the phase of agroecological transition and farm region. In contrast, most leaf traits, including specific leaf area, leaf nitrogen concentration, and leaf C:N ratios, were more conserved. Principal component analysis showed a clear pattern in root functional traits, and crop trait hypervolume space changed detectably along the transition gradient. Our findings suggest that root traits are more responsive than leaf traits as indicators of agroecological change, which can inform the monitoring of agroecological transitions. By providing quantitative evidence of trait change, this study contributes a novel understanding of the temporal dynamics of crop strategies when farms transition towards sustainable agricultural systems.

Effective soil nutrient management remains a critical determinant of agricultural profitability among smallholder farmers. This research evaluates the economic viability of fertilizer trials for teff and sorghum crops under different landscape positions in the dryland areas of northeastern Ethiopia. The study employed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) comprising nine treatments across three districts. Data from 855 experimental plots were analysed using a linear mixed-effects model (LMEM) across the slope gradients of foot slope, mid slopes, and hill slopes. Partial budget analysis, value-to-cost ratios (VCRs), and sensitivity analysis were employed to evaluate the economic feasibility of nutrients. The result from the LMEM revealed that fertilizer treatments, crop type, and slope position significantly affect net benefits. The results also showed that profitability declined progressively from the foot slope to the mid slope and further to the hill slope. The mixed model results indicated that the NP fertilizer has substantially increased net benefits relative to other treatments. Moreover, the partial budget, VCR, and sensitivity analyses also confirmed that NP fertilizer produced the highest economic return for both crops. A sensitivity analysis further confirmed the robustness of the NP fertilizer under the price fluctuation scenarios of inputs (fertilizer and both crops). Therefore, the NP is an economically viable fertilizer for both teff and sorghum producers. Strategic soil and nutrient management practices tailored to different landscape positions will further enhance farm profitability in the study areas.

Intercropping cereals and legumes may enhance system productivity by simultaneously producing grain for human consumption and crop residues for livestock feed. This study evaluated the effects of maize (Zea mays) intercropped with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) or mucuna (Mucuna pruriens) on soil moisture dynamics, grain and forage yields, and household food and feed self-sufficiency under varying rainfall conditions. The experiment was conducted on five farms in Mutoko District, Zimbabwe, during the 2021/22 and 2022/23 growing seasons using a Randomized Complete Block Design with five treatments: sole maize, sole cowpea, sole mucuna, maize–cowpea intercropping, and maize–mucuna intercropping. Soil moisture was measured biweekly to 1.8 m depth. Each season, experimental sites were classified according to seasonal rainfall as dry (<450 mm), average (450–600 mm), or wet seasons (>600 mm).Intercropping performance was influenced by rainfall. Sole mucuna utilized more soil moisture than other cropping systems. In dry and average seasons, sole maize yielded 1,812 kg ha−1 of grain, 103% more than maize intercrops, and met annual household maize requirements. In wet seasons, maize–cowpea intercropping produced higher maize grain yields (3,273 kg ha−1) than sole maize (2,372 kg ha−1), with a land equivalent ratio of 2.18. Mid-season dry spells reduced grain yields across treatments but had limited effects on stover production. During wet seasons, mucuna-based systems generated the highest forage and crude protein yields, sufficient to feed five cattle during the dry season. These findings highlight that maize–legume intercropping can enhance food and feed production during relatively wet seasons

Maize is the most important staple food in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, smallholders produce on average about 20% of what is possible with best agronomic practices. On-farm experiments were conducted over two consecutive cropping seasons in Central Mozambique to investigate the contribution of genotype-by-environment-by-management interactions to maize yields in relation to improved cultivars, sowing time, and fertilization regimes across soil fertility conditions. In 2022–2023, maize yield variability on high-fertility fields was explained by a three-way interaction between fertilizer regime, sowing date, and cultivar, whereas on low-fertility fields, it was explained by fertilizer regime only. The highest yields were observed with early sowing of an intermediate (3.6 t ha−1) or early (3.1 t ha−1) maturity cultivar, whereas late sowing yielded the least (1.6 t ha−1). In 2023–2024, characterized by a severe El Niño drought, yield variability was explained by cultivar on high-fertility fields (with the intermediate maturity cultivar yielding highest) and by fertilizer regime on low-fertility fields. Results from farmer-managed experiments conducted in the same season confirmed the importance of cultivar choice and fertilizer use. Profitability with improved maize cultivars and mineral fertilizers depended on soil fertility and on the extent of water limitations to maize growth, with trade-offs arising between food security and return on investment when improved genetics and agronomic management were used. Targeting intermediate maturity maize cultivars with early sowing and fertilizer inputs was found to be critical to improve food security amid climate change.

The citrus industry is vital to regional economies, and scientific land suitability evaluation is essential for spatial optimisation. This study focuses on Tongcheng County in Hubei Province, which exemplifies a typical red soil hilly region that is ecologically vulnerable in southeastern China. This study integrates Geographic Information System (GIS), Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and fuzzy mathematics to develop a comprehensive land suitability evaluation model that balances factor continuity with evaluation uncertainty. Multi-source spatial data (climate, topography, soil) were used to quantify fuzzy membership functions for citrus growth. Subsequently, we conducted a weighted overlay analysis based on this quantification, which resulted in the creation of a citrus cultivation suitability evaluation map for Tongcheng County. The evaluation results categorised the study area into three distinct zones: (1) The Optimal Zone (CAI ≥ 0.75), which comprises 75.8% (857 km2) of the total study area; (2) The Suitable Zone (0.55 ≤ CAI ≤ 0.75), which constitutes 19.6% (222 km2) of the total study area; and (3) The Unsuitable Zone (CAI ≤ 0.55), which represents 4.6% (52 km2) of the total study area. The research findings aligned with the actual conditions in Tongcheng County, thereby confirming the feasibility of the employed research methodology. These outcomes address research gaps and provide a replicable methodological framework for land evaluation in mountainous regions. This approach can be directly utilised in local agricultural spatial planning and the development of land-use policies. It carries substantial practical implications for advancing sustainable agricultural development and revitalising rural areas in mountainous regions.

Accurate quantification of soil organic carbon (SOC) is essential for assessing agricultural sustainability and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. However, determining the number of samples needed to capture SOC variability in tropical sugarcane systems is challenging due to soil texture and stratification from controlled traffic farming (CTF). This study estimated the minimum sample size required to assess bulk density (BD), carbon (C) concentration, and SOC stocks (0–100 cm) across three texture classes (<20%, 20–55%, >55% clay + silt), assuming a maximum error of 20% and α = 0.10. Soils were collected from 67 commercial sugarcane fields in south-central Brazil, totaling 2,412 samples at six depths (0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–50, 50–70, and 70–100 cm). Variance estimators and bootstrap resampling (10,000 iterations) were used to evaluate spatial variability and sampling requirements. Significant differences between rows and inter-rows were observed in the top 0–30 cm: inter-rows showed 10–20% higher BD, 15–25% lower C concentration, and 10–30% lower SOC stocks. Soil texture strongly influenced variability and sample size. Fine-textured soils (>55% clay + silt) required fewer samples (BD: 3; C: 14; SOC: 14), whereas sandy soils (<20%) required up to 4, 27, and 26 samples, respectively. Variability and sampling needs declined with depth, reflecting localized effects of compaction and residue management. These results provide texture-based guidelines to optimize SOC sampling in sugarcane systems, reducing costs by 30–50% and supporting integration with MRV and certification frameworks, thereby strengthening sustainable production and climate commitments.

A major advantage of agroforestry systems is its ability to enhance soil health. Rubber and oil palm are typically cultivated in monocultures and are considered economically volatile crops. Integrating these two crops may help strengthen farmers’ resilience. This study examined a seven-year-old, innovative rubber–oil palm agroforestry system in Indonesia. Using the Biofunctool® set of indicators, the spatial heterogeneity of soil health was assessed across five distinct positions within the plot. Of the eleven indicators measured, three showed significant variation by position, which could be directly linked to specific management practices. Soil mesofauna activity was higher in less disturbed areas where cover crops were established, while nitrate dynamics was greater in zones where fertilization was applied. Infiltration rates were reduced in the rubber harvesting path, likely due to compaction from repeated walk. Most other indicators showed little variation across the plot, possibly due to the young age of the experiment and the intensive soil disturbance commonly associated with the establishment of perennial crops such as rubber and oil palm. This study provides practical recommendations for improving soil health in innovative agroforestry systems mixing rubber and oil palm. Further research incorporating agronomic and economic evaluations is needed to fully assess the system’s performance and scalability.

Accurate harvest time prediction is a challenge for developing sustainable fruit production, especially for both dessert and plantain banana varieties. The proposed approach to predict the optimum harvest date was based on estimating appropriate parameter values, namely the threshold temperature and the corresponding degree-day sum, for a given cultivar and targeted market. When the threshold temperature was estimated from a sufficiently wide and contrasted dataset, as illustrated for the variety 938, the model achieves high predictive accuracy. The thermal time sum model can accurately predict the flowering-to-fruit-ripening phase of five dessert banana varieties moderately to strongly resistant to black leaf streak and fusarium wilt TR4 diseases and for the first time of one of plantain banana variety, cv. French Clair, with values of RMSE, MAPE, and R² ranging, respectively, from 3.8 to 8, from 3% to 6.8%, and from 0.51 to 0.85 on the validation datasets. This study proposes a simple and reliable temperature-based method to optimally forecast banana harvest date according to the targeted market. The calculated thermal time sum from the variety-dependent threshold temperature accurately predicted the fruit storability and the fruit size. Moreover, an adapted statistical method was proposed in the case of inability of recording data on the flowering-to-fruit-ripening phase, based on the occurrence of fruit splitting obtained under contrasting temperatures in different geographical areas. Threshold temperature values for each variety were discussed, and it was determined that this is a purely statistical parameter for prediction, without direct biological meaning.

In Madagascar, a three-year mixed-methods research approach was conducted through a partnership with a network of neighboring farmers. The objective was to explore the integration of legumes into biannual rice-based rotations. Thirty-six legume integration scenarios were jointly selected and assessed on field at the rotation scale over two cropping seasons, crossing (1) cropping intensity, represented by four legume integration modalities: sole crop (SC), intercropped with maize (IM), intercropped with cassava (IC), and intercropped with both maize and cassava (IMC); and (2) legume type, consisting of nine cropping options: four pulses, four cover crops, and four controls without legumes. Over the two cropping seasons, mean gross incomes per rotation were significantly higher in SC (US$273) and IC (US$301) systems compared to IM (US$210) and IMC (US$228). Carbon inputs were significantly greater in SC (1.16 t C ha−1) and IM (1.06 t C ha−1) systems than in IC (0.84 t C ha−1) and IMC (0.90 t C ha−1). During participatory field sessions, farmers gave the highest acceptance scores to SC systems (score: 809), followed by IC (610), IM (575), and IMC (428). Regardless of cropping intensity, the two traditional pulse species led to higher gross incomes and greater farmer acceptance, but with lower carbon inputs compared to the introduced pulse and cover crops. A composite assessment revealed that economic and social performances may match, while economic and environmental performances are never related. This original approach provided valuable insights for both researchers and farmers for feasible solutions at both regional and farm levels.

Soil contamination due to toxic elements (TEs) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) is a global environmental concern due to their toxicity in ecosystems and the potential risk of food chain contamination. This study aimed to examine the differences in the multielemental profile of two experimental fields in Central Italy and to assess the uptake and translocation of TEs (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Ti) and PTEs (Co, Cu, V, Zn) in three durum wheat, Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum varieties grown in organic (OFS) and conventional (CFS) farming systems. The biological absorption coefficient (BAC) and the translocation factor (TF) were evaluated to determine the absorption and translocation of elements from the soil to the aerial parts of the plants. The content of essential mineral nutrients such as Cu and Zn was higher in organically grown plants, whereas TEs and PTEs, such as Cd, Cr, Ni, and V, were more concentrated in conventionally cultivated plants. Among the three varieties, Simeto showed a greater ability to translocate Cd to the edible part (TF = 0.0341 for OFS and 0.7900 for CFS). Soil type, cultivation method, and durum wheat variety all affect the uptake and distribution of elements within the soil-plant system. Future research focusing on the edible parts could improve sustainable agricultural practices, optimise nutrient management, enhance crop quality, and reduce food security risks, ultimately supporting the development of safer farming systems that are resilient to climate and environmental changes.