Historically, civil activism was primarily shaped illegally in Russia, through the revolutionary underground under tsarism, and via dissident movement under the Soviet regime. Among legal enterprises, philanthropy maintained an orientation toward gradualist social change and mutual support. Women have played a major role in philanthropy and voluntary activities in Russia. Compared to European and American women, Russian women enjoyed far more extensive property rights which defined different strategies for gaining access to public space. Women's philanthropy made its greatest impact on public policy-making agendas not through maternalistic programmes for mothers and children but through education of women and girls, and support of women entering the job market. However, their contribution, especially in its civic aspects, has been undervalued for many reasons, particularly in the interpretation of a powerful ethos of female self-sacrifice peculiar to Russian women as a basic motive of women's voluntarism. This article challenges this interpretation and instead portrays women in philanthropy and voluntary activity as agents of social change.

There are two opposing views on the role of private foundations, especially the corporate foundations. Korean people seem to think that corporate foundations have been used as a device to transfer the wealth of rich families with favourable tax treatment. Considering the current status and past performance of corporate foundations, the evidence seems to lend support to this negative view at the moment. The corporate foundations have performed within a very limited range of activities and have not made many efforts to develop non-profit activities to meet the expectations of Korean society. The negative view does not imply that corporate foundations have not contributed to Korean society. But the negative view can be regarded as a criticism of the past performance of corporate foundations and the way they have been managed.

The purpose of this article is to analyse the changing relationships between local government and voluntary organisations in the decentralised Danish welfare state within the field of social policy. Here major changes in public discourse have brought voluntary organisations more to the forefront in a welfare state model whose distinct public character might be fading. However, little attention has been devoted to potential problems resulting from intensified co-operation. The article explores these issues using evidence from a case study of the links between public authorities and seven voluntary organisations in the city of Aalborg in northern Jutland. This case study raises the question of whether voluntary organisations, as argued in public debate, can generally be regarded as the antithesis of the bureaucratically and patemalistically organised public social services. Rather, they seem to be co-actors, actively constructing new paradigms and practices in social policy, that cannot be captured in conventional dichotomous models. This suggests that the public bureaucracy versus altruistic voluntary organisation, or distinctions usually made between professional and volunteer motives, may be of limited use.

This paper reports on research into mergers in the voluntary sector in the UK from 1988 to 1993. It compares empirically derived critical success factors with success factors derived from previous work on mergers in both the voluntary and private sectors. The study concludes that merger can be an extremely effective strategy for voluntary organisations. For it to be so, it has to be undertaken willingly, with a shared vision between the partners of what the merger will achieve. Cultural differences need to be recognised and handled within a trusting context in which mutual respect is backed by an equitable process. Finally, sensitive handling of individuals caught up in the merger process is essential — but something which the voluntary sector ought to be well capable of doing.

Women's philanthropy has deep roots in India. A historical survey shows that despite their generally low socio-economic status, Indian women made significant contributions to social progress even while outside the formal power and profit structure. This article also analyses the role of religion, custom, caste and class, political and social movements, and the legal and political structure in motivating and facilitating as well as in restraining women's philanthropy. It is lack of economic independence and an enabling socio-legal structure that has inhibited social entrepreneurship among women, while sociopolitical movements have encouraged it.

The Scandinavian countries are part of the same legal tradition. No Scandinavian country has any written statute on non-profit associations. Their association law is flexible, common-sensical and easy to comply with. To obtain subsidies, the associations may have to submit to regulations regarding organisational structures (open membership and one person, one vote). The law on foundations is more formalised, and the foundations are subject to considerably more control and scrutiny. Scandinavian NPOs are usually exempt from income tax, but do not to any great extent benefit from deductibility for donations. They are subject to payroll tax, and usually to value added tax. The Scandinavian taxation policies may make the NPOs economically dependent upon the government, and subject to regulation through ‘subsidy law’.

Women in Australia developed a distinctive pattern of philanthropy, adapting inherited traditions to their new situation. The Australian colonies had no Poor Laws; government-funded private philanthropy, to which men gave their money but women gave their time, was the primary means of providing relief. In performing this role, women became increasingly allied to conservative forces and divorced from campaigns for social reform. Alienated from the radical voices which dominated social policy formation in the federated nation, their role was marginalised by a masculinist/egalitarian notion of a welfare state. The current retreat from this ideal has prompted a call for a re-evaluation of philanthropy, but it is too early to see whether this will produce new opportunities for women or perpetuate the older gendered pattern of participation.