In the current issue, Ellis et al. (Reference Ellis, Reid and Kramer2024) introduce a two-tiered model of life history strategies shaping fundamental developmental processes of pubertal maturation and procreation. The first tier is governed by energetic constraints (e.g., inadequate nutrition), but the authors argue that this alone cannot explain the full range of developmental variation. Therefore, they propose a second-tier centered on extrinsic mortality – perceived environmental threats to survival – which may drive these developmental processes even in the absence of energetic constraints. Notably, extrinsic mortality requires reallocation of time and effort toward optimizing survival.

Building upon this framework, we propose future directions to apply life history theory to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or other sexual and gender expansive identities (hereafter referred to as sexual and gender minority, or SGM) individuals. We acknowledge that these directions are likely relevant to other marginalized groups. Specifically, we propose that minority stress and suicide exposure may serve as extrinsic ambient mortality cues among SGM populations, and identify a feature of pubertal development that requires more consideration. Guided by Ellis et al.’s model, we encourage researchers to investigate how these factors shape broader fundamental developmental processes. Importantly, these considerations spur testable hypotheses and avenues for future research.

First, we propose that minority stressors may serve as ambient mortality cues for SGM youth. Despite societal progressions (e.g., legalization of gay marriage), identity-based discrimination, marginalization, and stigmatization remain common experiences among SGM individuals. Not only can these experiences profoundly damage an individual’s sense of self, but also the harm may be compounded by the awareness of systemic violence and historical threats to SGM lives. Recently, we have documented evidence of accelerated pubertal development in SGM youth, particularly when discrimination and identity-based problems at home or school (minority stress) were present (Del Toro, Papke, Wiglesworth, & Klimes-Dougan, Reference Del Toro, Papke, Wiglesworth and Klimes-Dougan2025; Papke et al., Reference Papke, Wiglesworth, Carosella, Başgöze, Green, Fiecas and Klimes-Dougan2025). Moreover, beyond adolescence, Christian et al. (Christian et al., Reference Christian, Wilson, Madison, Kamp Dush, McDade, Peng and Cole2025) found that epigenetic ageing may be implicated in sexual minority stress: Bisexual women were reported to be approximately 8.67 years older biologically than their chronological age, and those with internalized homonegativity and anti-bisexual experiences showed more accelerated ageing. Consistent with Ellis et al.’s (Reference Ellis, Reid and Kramer2024) model, these stressors may operate as ambient mortality cues for SGM individuals in high-resourced settings where energetic constraints are presumably not a driving factor. While not all instances of minority stress are directly perceived as threats to survival, the accumulation of these experiences may have profound developmental effects. Indeed, mounting evidence suggests these processes are likely to function across other marginalized populations experiencing elevated minority stress (e.g., racial minorities) that can emerge in different systems across development (e.g., Del Toro, Anderson, Sun, & Lee, Reference Del Toro, Anderson, Sun and Lee2024; Geronimus, Hicken, Keene, & Bound, Reference Geronimus, Hicken, Keene and Bound2006; Geronimus et al., Reference Geronimus, Hicken, Pearson, Seashols, Brown and Cruz2010).

In addition, we suggest that exposure to death by suicide within social networks may represent a salient extrinsic mortality cue, particularly for SGM youth. Ellis et al. (Reference Ellis, Reid and Kramer2024) note several examples of possible environmental mortality, including war zones and high-violence communities; while their list was illustrative rather than comprehensive, we argue that suicide may be a notable addition. For SGM youth, exposure to suicide within social networks may prompt perceptions of their own future to be at-risk, in turn shifting resource allocation toward earlier maturation. It is well-documented that suicidality is alarmingly prevalent among SGM populations, especially among youth (Blashill et al., Reference Blashill, Fox, Feinstein, Albright and Calzo2021; di Giacomo et al., Reference di Giacomo, Krausz, Colmegna, Aspesi and Clerici2018; Grossman & D’Augelli, Reference Grossman and D’Augelli2007). Some work suggests mortality in general may be elevated for SGM versus non-SGM populations, which could in part be due to high suicide rates among SGM individuals (Zachry et al., Reference Zachry, O’Brien, Clark, Ding and Blosnich2025). It is common (and beneficial) for SGM youth to affiliate with those who share features of their identity (Pollitt, Blair, & Lannutti, Reference Pollitt, Blair and Lannutti2022), though there are concerns that suicide is often normalized within SGM social networks, leading to increased acceptability and reduced fear of suicide (Clark et al., Reference Clark, Salway, McConocha and Pachankis2022). Notably, more SGM youth are exposed to suicide attempts and deaths by friends and family than their peers (Mitchell et al., Reference Mitchell, Banyard, Goodman, Strøm and Ybarra2021). Aligned with life history theory proposed by Ellis and colleagues, we would expect that exposures to ambient mortality, such as suicide, may predict earlier or rapid maturation in SGM youth.

Finally, the proposed model by Ellis et al. (Reference Ellis, Reid and Kramer2024) cites a preponderance of evidence on specific features of life history such as onset and pace of reproduction, with a more limited discussion of pubertal development. Notably, pubertal development is a complex and multifaceted process that comprises synchrony, timing, and tempo (Mendle, Reference Mendle2014). Some individuals experience pubertal asynchrony, in which different body parts mature faster or slower than others. Comparable to how earlier timing and faster tempo have been linked to more psychopathological outcomes, especially in girls (Deardorff et al., Reference Deardorff, Hayward, Wilson, Bryson, Hammer and Agras2007), more asynchronous processes may be concerning (Thompson, Hammen, & Brennan, Reference Thompson, Hammen and Brennan2016). Pubertal asynchrony poses a challenge to the current two-tiered model. Though research has yet to explore this question, should pubertal asynchrony occur in the context of extrinsic ambient mortality cues in high-resourced settings like we are proposing, it suggests the second-tier influence of mortality cues does not uniformly accelerate all aspects of development. Rather, it implies that different pubertal traits may be differentially sensitive to energetic versus psychosocial influences. While gaining a better understanding of how alterations in more conventional indexes of puberty operate in SGM youth, expanding the reach to asynchronous development may advance this work and potentially lead to refinement of the model.

Extending Ellis et al.’s (Reference Ellis, Reid and Kramer2024) foundational work, we propose avenues for future research to extend the two-tiered model to focus on life history theory, including how minority stress and suicide exposure may serve as extrinsic ambient mortality cues among SGM populations (especially youth), and how pubertal development may be implicated. These testable research questions have the potential to spur political and social reform, with the ultimate goal of promoting the overall well-being of these at-risk youth. In today’s volatile political climate in the United States, there is an urgent imperative to leverage these established concepts – such as the two-tiered model – for research that centers marginalized communities, such as SGM youth.