South Dakota has been a leading adopter of genetically modified organism (GM) crops since their introduction in 1996. In 2009, South Dakota shared the top adoption rate with Iowa for the percentage of acres planted with Bt corn. However; South Dakota has also recently experienced a significant increase in the proportion of acres treated with insecticide. The empirical evidence presented suggests that corn, hay and sunflower production in South Dakota have experienced an intensification of insecticide use in 2007 relative to past US Census of Agriculture reporting years. This study links the proportion of acres planted for a specific crop to the proportion of total acres treated with insecticide at the county level. This approach provides insight on how changing cropping patterns in South Dakota have influenced insecticide use. Empirical results indicate that the upper-bound estimate for insecticide usage on non-Bt corn acreage increased from 38% in 2002 to all non-Bt corn acres planted in 2007. The implication of this result is that in 2007 South Dakota producers were likely treating a percentage of their Bt corn acres with insecticide. Changing cropping patterns in South Dakota are also compared to that in other states in the US Corn Belt region. It appears that the South Dakota experience is not unique and is part of a broader trend.

Cover crops in minimum or no-tilled systems are usually killed by applying one or more herbicides, thus significantly increasing costs. Applying herbicides at lower rates with mechanical interventions that do not disturb or bury cover crop residues can, however, reduce costs. Our objective was to develop a management system with the above-mentioned features for prostrate cover crops on permanent beds in an irrigated Vertisol. The implement developed consisted of a toolbar to which were attached spring-loaded pairs of parallel coulter discs, one set of nozzles between the individual coulter discs that directed a contact herbicide to the bed surfaces to kill the cover crop and a second set of nozzles located to direct the cheaper glyphosate to the furrow to kill weeds. The management system killed a prostrate cover crop with less trafficking, reduced the use of more toxic herbicides, carbon footprint, labor and risk to operators. Maximum depth of compaction was more but average increase was less than that with the boom sprayer control.

We analyze the efficiency of organic pasture farming in Germany using data from 1994/95 to 2005/06. Five inputs and one output are analyzed by means of a stochastic frontier production function, allowing for heteroscedasticity and technical effects. Five sets of possible determinants of technical efficiency are considered in the model. These include: (1) farm structure and resources; (2) human capital and management capacities; (3) institutional choice; and (4) subsidies. To these factors that are commonly included in technical effects models, we add (5) a set of variables that capture localization and urbanization economies such as the share of organic farms in a region and the regional share of votes for the Green Party in recent elections. These regional effects are found to have a significant impact on the technical efficiency of organic farms. The evolution of efficiency on farms that are converting from conventional to organic farming is also analyzed.

Organic producers in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA are interested in reducing tillage, labor and time requirements for grain production. Cover crop-based, organic rotational no-till grain production is one approach to accomplish these goals. This approach is becoming more viable with advancements in a system for planting crops into cover crop residue flattened by a roller–crimper. However, inability to consistently control weeds, particularly perennial weeds, is a major constraint. Cover crop biomass can be increased by manipulating seeding rate, timing of planting and fertility to achieve levels (>8000 kg ha−1) necessary for suppressing summer annual weeds. However, while cover crops are multi-functional tools, when enhancing performance for a given function there are trade-off with other functions. While cover crop management is required for optimal system performance, integration into a crop rotation becomes a critical challenge to the overall success of the production system. Further, high levels of cover crop biomass can constrain crop establishment by reducing optimal seed placement, creating suitable habitat for seed- and seedling-feeding herbivores, and impeding placement of supplemental fertilizers. Multi-institutional and -disciplinary teams have been working in the mid-Atlantic region to address system constraints and management trade-off challenges. Here, we report on past and current research on cover crop-based organic rotational no-till grain production conducted in the mid-Atlantic region.

Due to its high agro-ecological variation and favorable production environment, Ethiopia has been endowed with high diversity of animal genetic resources and huge livestock population. However, the per capita consumption of livestock products is among the least in the world. To increase this consumption level, Ethiopia needs to keep livestock species that would be able to thrive under sub-optimal management systems, while providing some amount of products and services. The domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is one of the large ruminants that contribute to the least developed world's food and agriculture production. Therefore, introduction of the riverine-type buffalo would support food and agriculture production in Ethiopia. Moreover, the existing high demand for milk and meat, and the agro-ecological conditions are in favor of introduction of the riverine-type buffalo. More specifically, the riverine buffalo excels over indigenous cattle in its milk yield and quality of milk components. It also has a long productive life, a special ability of converting poor-quality roughage into animal protein, docile temperament and a wide range of adaptation. The presence of wild buffalo also shows Ethiopia's suitability for domestic buffalo rearing. Therefore, even though it seems illogical to make direct comparison between the performance of the Ethiopian indigenous cattle and the domestic buffaloes kept elsewhere; the hardy nature of buffalo and its wide range of adaptation would indicate the adaptation of the riverine-type buffalo in Ethiopia. However, the introduced riverine-type buffalo needs to be handled on experimental stations until management expertise is developed.

Organic systems in the southeastern USA offer unique challenges and solutions to crop production due to regional soil and climate characterized by highly weathered soil types, high precipitation and the capacity to grow cover crops in the winter. Recently, the interest of producers and researchers in high-residue cover crops and conservation tillage systems has increased. Various designs of the roller–crimper to manage cover crops have been invented and demonstrated to growers in the southeastern region of the USA over the past 17 years. The impacts of high-residue cover crop mulches on the agronomic systems in the region are diverse. Legume cover crops assist with meeting N demand from cash crops though they decompose rapidly and are seldom sufficient for N demanding crops such as corn. Cereal cover crop mulches can have the opposite effect by immobilizing N and have a longer impact on soil moisture and weed dynamics. While undesirable for many crops, N immobilization is one possible mechanism for weed suppression in legume cash crops planted into cereal residues. Other cover crop weed suppression mechanisms include physical impedance, light availability, allelopathy and microclimate effects. Regardless of the cause, successful weed control by mulches is highly dependent on having substantial biomass. The southeastern region is capable of producing cover crop biomass in excess of 9000 kg ha−1, which is sufficient for weed control in many cash crops, although supplementary weed control is sometimes necessary. Long-term data are needed to predict when farmers should add supplementary weed control. More work is also needed on how much additional N is required for the cash crops and how best to deliver that N in a high-residue environment using organic sources.

In India, the number of farmers converting to organic farming has increased in the recent past despite the lack of government support in providing knowledge and extension to the farmers. The aim of this article is to investigate the perceived relevance, benefits and barriers to a conversion to organic agriculture in three different Indian contexts—in Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand states. In each state, 40 farmers from both organic and conventional systems were interviewed. The findings indicated that conventional producers identified production and marketing barriers as the main constraints to adopting organic farming, while the age and education of the farmer were not deemed a problem. Lack of knowledge and lack of institutional support were other barriers to conversion. Some farmers were, however, interested in converting to organic farming in the near future in Madhya Pradesh due to the low cost of production, and in Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand due to the price premium and health benefits. On the other hand, organic farmers were more concerned with health, environmental and production factors when institutional support was available. The years under conversion were positively associated with reduced input costs in all three states and with increased income in Tamil Nadu and increased yield in Madhya Pradesh. Both organic and conventional farmers found the two production factors, low yield and pest control, to be of major concern. However, organic farms in Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand experienced yield increases because most of the farms were in the post-conversion period, while the farms in Tamil Nadu were in the conversion period and experienced yield reduction. The study suggests that the government scheme for compensating yield loss during the conversion period and a price premium may help farmers adopt organic agriculture on a large scale in India.

The Industrial Revolution and intensification of agriculture have, in some cases, led to economic activities that profoundly influenced the ecosystem to the point where environmental stability and geographic political security are jeopardized. The uncertainty about oil reserves, rising energy prices and the threat of harmful climate change effects has intensified the search for alternative farming systems that reduce negative environmental impact. This study reports the ecological impact of conventional (CON), integrated (INT), organic (ORG) and biodynamic (BD) farming systems calculated from data collected in a field trial at Maribor, Slovenia, and interpreted using the SPIonExcel tool. This tool is a member of the ecological footprint family and describes the area necessary to embed a human activity sustainably into the ecosphere. Three-year results show a markedly reduced ecological footprint of the ORG and BD systems in production of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ‘Antonius’) and spelt (Triticum spelta L. ‘Ebners rotkorn’), mainly due to the absence of external production factors. When yields were also considered, the ORG and BD systems again had a reduced overall footprint per product unit and increased ecological efficiency of production. Thus, ORG and BD farming systems present viable alternatives for reducing the impact of agriculture on environmental degradation and climate change. Nevertheless, room for improvement exists in the area of machinery use in all systems studied and yield improvement in the ORG farming system.

Novel technologies to reduce tillage in organic systems include a no-tillage roller/crimper for terminating cover crops prior to commercial crop planting. The objective of this experiment was to compare: (1) weed management and yield effects of organic tilled and no-tillage systems for corn (Zea mays L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and irrigated tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), using a roller/crimper and two cover crop combinations [hairy vetch/rye (Vicia villosa Roth/Secale cereale L.) and winter wheat/Austrian winter pea (Triticum vulgare L./Pisum sativum L. ssp. arvense (L.) Poir.)]; and (2) the economic performance of each system. Weed management ranged from fair to excellent in the organic no-tillage system for soybean and tomato crops, with the rye/hairy vetch mulch generally providing the most weed suppression. Corn suffered from low rainfall, competition from weeds and hairy vetch re-growth and, potentially, low soil nitrogen (N) from lack of supplemental fertilization and N immobilization during cover crop decomposition. No-tillage corn yields averaged 5618 and 634 kg ha−1 in 2006 and 2007, respectively, which was 42–92% lower than tilled corn. No-tillage soybeans in 2007 averaged 2793 kg ha−1 compared to 3170 kg ha−1 for tilled soybeans, although no-tillage yields were 48% of tilled yields in the dry year of 2006. Irrigated tomato yields averaged 40 t ha−1 in 2006 and 63 t ha−1 in 2007, with no statistical differences among tillage treatments. Economic analysis for the three crops revealed additional cover crop seed and management costs in the no-tillage system. Average organic corn returns to management were US$1028 and US$2466 ha−1 greater in the tilled system compared to the no-tillage system in 2006 and 2007, respectively, which resulted mainly from the dramatically lower no-tillage yields. No-tillage soybean returns to management were negative in 2006, averaging US$ −14 ha−1, compared to US$742 ha−1 for tilled soybeans. However, in 2007, no-tillage soybean returns averaged US$1096 ha−1. The 2007 no-tillage irrigated tomato returns to management averaged US$53,515 compared to US$55,515 in the tilled system. Overall, the organic no-tillage soybean and irrigated tomato system demonstrated some promise for reducing tillage in organic systems, but until economic benefits from soil carbon enhancement can be included for no-tillage systems, soil improvements probably cannot offset the economic losses in no-tillage systems. Irrigation could improve the performance of the no-tillage system in dry years, especially if grain crops are rotated with a high-value irrigated tomato crop.

Urban agriculture is a global and growing pursuit that can contribute to economic development, job creation, food security and community building. It can, however, be limited by competition for space with other forms of urban development, a lack of formalized land use rights and health hazards related to food contamination. The use of green roof technology in urban agriculture has the potential to alleviate some of these problems, without adversely affecting the benefits provided by urban agriculture. It would not only enable the use of land for development and agriculture, but may also facilitate the formation of formal space and water use agreements, and enable redistribution of ground-level resources among urban farmers. This could decrease the use of contaminated land and water at ground level and alleviate health concerns. Before green roof technology can be incorporated into urban agriculture on a larger scale, installation costs must be reduced, roof weight limitations should be assessed, and appropriate management practices should be developed which will ensure that the benefits of green roofs, such as energy savings and storm water management, are still provided to urban communities.

Organic farmers in western Canada rely on tillage to control weeds and incorporate crop residues that could plug mechanical weed-control implements. However, tillage significantly increases the risk of soil erosion. For farmers seeking to reduce or eliminate tillage, potential alternatives include mowing or using a roller crimper for terminating green manure crops (cover crops) or using a minimum tillage (min-till) rotary hoe for mechanically controlling weeds. Although many researchers have studied organic crop production in western Canada, few have studied no-till organic production practices. Two studies were recently conducted in Saskatchewan to determine the efficacy of the following alternatives to tillage: mowing and roller crimping for weed control, and min-till rotary hoeing weed control in field pea (Pisum sativum L.). The first study compared mowing and roller crimping with tillage when terminating faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and field pea green manure crops. Early termination of annual green manure crops with roller crimping or mowing resulted in less weed regrowth compared with tillage. When compared with faba bean, field pea produced greater crop biomass, suppressed weeds better and had less regrowth. Wheat yields following pea were not affected by the method of termination. Thus, this first study indicated that roller crimping and mowing are viable alternatives to tillage to terminate field pea green manure crops. The second study evaluated the tolerance and efficacy of a min-till rotary harrow in no-till field pea production. The min-till rotary hoe was able to operate in no-till cereal residues and multiple passes did not affect the level of residue cover. Field pea exhibited excellent tolerance to the min-till rotary hoe. Good weed control occurred with multiple rotary hoe passes, and pea seed yield was 87% of the yield obtained in the herbicide-treated check. Therefore, this second study demonstrated that min-till rotary hoeing effectively controls many small seeded annual weeds in the presence of crop residue and thus can reduce the need for tillage in organic-cropping systems.

One of the key questions of primary importance to global agriculture and food security is how to optimize sustainable intensification to balance competing demands on land for food and energy production, while ensuring the provision of ecosystem services and maintaining or increasing yields. Integrating trees and agriculture through agroforestry has been attracting increasing interest as an agroecological approach to sustainable intensification. Trees have traditionally been important elements of temperate agricultural systems around the world, but there has been increasing separation of agriculture, forestry and nature over the past few decades. This paper discusses what we can learn from traditional agroforestry systems to help develop modern systems that integrate ecological farming and agroecological advances to achieve sustainable intensification. We also discuss the existing barriers to wider adoption of agroforestry, and identify how these barriers can be overcome to promote agroforestry as a mainstream land-use system.

No-tillage (NT) and reduced tillage (RT) systems are well-known management tools for reducing soil erosion and improving soil fertility. NT and RT may improve the environmental and economic performance of organic farming, but they are still not common practice among organic farmers. This paper presents the effects of tillage [RT versus conventional tillage (CT)], fertilization (slurry versus manure compost) and biodynamic preparations (with versus without) on soil fertility indicators such as soil organic carbon (Corg), microbial biomass and microbial activity, soil nutrients and nutrient budgets in an organic farming system during the first six-year crop rotation period of a long-term experiment on a clayey soil in a temperate climate. RT caused stratification of soil organic carbon (Corg), microbial properties and soil nutrients in the soil profile. Under RT, Corg in the 0–10 cm soil layer increased from 2.19 to 2.61% (w/w) from 2002 to 2008, whereas it remained constant under CT. In both tillage treatments, Corg remained constant in the 10–20 cm soil depth. Microbial biomass C increased by 37% under RT in the 0–10 cm soil depth and microbial activity [dehydrogenase activity (DHA)] was enhanced by 57%. Soil microbial biomass C and DHA in the 10–20 cm soil depth were also higher under RT (+10 and +17%, respectively). Soluble soil P and K were 72 and 40%, respectively, higher in 0–10 cm soil depth under RT when compared with CT. Fertilization showed no effects on the measured soil properties. Biodynamic preparations increased solely the Cmic-to-Nmic (soil microbial biomass C to soil microbial biomass N) ratio by 7% in the 0–10 cm soil depth. Nutrient budgets for P were balanced in all treatments, but N and K exports were higher under RT compared to CT. We conclude that RT is a suitable method for increasing indicators of soil fertility in organic farming systems. The combined effects of RT and an organic farming system with a diverse, ley-based crop rotation and organic fertilization merit further promotion and it may be considered for supporting actions by the agricultural policy schemes.