Efficient sowing techniques ensure proper crop establishment and enable optimal utilization of resources, thereby enhancing crop productivity, reducing production costs and improving overall farm profitability. Although quinoa is a low water-requirement crop, it responds significantly to well-planned irrigation regimes. To develop suitable irrigation schedules for quinoa under different land management in rice fallows, a field experiment was conducted for two consecutive years (2022–2023 and 2023–2024) at the ICAR – Indian Institute of Water Management, Bhubaneswar Research Farm. The experiment included two sowing techniques in the main plots (L1: Broad Bed and Furrow; L2: Flat Beds) and three irrigation schedules in the subplots (I1: Irrigation at branching, primordial initiation, flowering and grain filling; I2: Irrigation at branching, primordial initiation and grain filling; I3: Irrigation at branching and flowering). Sowing quinoa on broad bed and furrow (BBF) resulted in significant increases in grain yield (12.6 %), biological yield (11.9 %), land productivity (13.4 %) and energy use efficiency (12.5 %) compared to flat beds. The BBF method also achieved a higher net return (US $531/ha), benefit-cost ratio (1.82), physical water productivity (0.79 kg/m3) and economic water productivity (US $0.67/m3). Irrigation scheduling at all four critical growth stages (I1) led to an increase in grain yield (1.57 t/ha), higher net return (US $686/ha), Benefit/Cost ‘B:C’ ratio (2.05) and improved water productivity (0.66 kg/m3 and US $0.57/m3 economic water productivity). Therefore, appropriate land management combined with optimal irrigation scheduling is essential for realizing the full yield potential of quinoa in the rice ecosystems of Eastern India.

Evaluation of genotypes is essential for assessing yield stability in organic farming, helping identify suitable cultivars for Punjab’s growers. This is particularly important given the harmful effects of intensive chemical use on soil and water quality, which drives the shift toward organic practices. Unlike conventional methods, organic farming relies on sustainable approaches such as crop rotation, green manure and bio-pesticides to promote agroecosystem health. The experiment was conducted during the Kharif seasons of 2020 and 2021 in a randomised complete block design at the Research Farm of the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab. Ten Basmati varieties, including Punjab Basmati 5, Punjab Basmati 4, Punjab Basmati 3, Punjab Basmati 2, Basmati 386, Basmati 370, CSR 30, Pusa Basmati 1121, Pusa Basmati 1509 and Pusa Basmati 1718, were assessed for the various yield-attributing parameters, such as effective tillers, number of grains per panicle, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, straw yield and total biomass. Pusa Basmati 1509 produced the highest grain yield (3.6 tonnes/ha), biomass yield (6.7 tonnes/ha) and harvest index (35.2 %) among all varieties followed by Punjab Basmati 4 and Pusa Basmati 1718. Net returns (INR 122,000 per ha) and benefit-cost ratio (B:C) (2.09) were the highest in Pusa Basmati 1121 because this cultivar fetches higher price in the market due to its superior aroma and cooking quality. The future research could delve into the organic cultivation practices specifically developed for these cultivars, contributing to the development of sustainable and resilient agriculture system in the region.

Raramuri Criollo (RC) cattle offer substantial sustainability advantages in arid regions. Their adaptation to harsh conditions and ability to adjust forage use according to the season make them efficient in pasture management. Furthermore, their lighter weight reduces soil pressure, and their preference for low-palatability grasses contributes to improved soil health and reduced erosion. These characteristics from RC make them more adaptable to such terrains and conditions than European cattle breeds. Regarding water usage, and compared to European cattle breeds, RC can wander further from water sources, which proves advantageous in the context of climate change. Moreover, their role in fire ecology involves reducing the risk of fires by altering the characteristics of forest fuels and managing fine fuels, which is crucial for minimizing fire hazards in grasslands. The potential use of this breed to produce high-quality meat derived from their grazing behaviour offers an alternative to new consumers’ demands concerning healthy and efficient production options. This narrative review discusses the role of RC in soil health, water sources and meat production. Overall, attributes from RC cattle make these animals a valuable option for mitigating overgrazing and fostering sustainability in arid regions.

Onion seed productivity, quality, and profitability in Ethiopia are constrained by declining soil fertility and inadequate fertilizer management, particularly due to a historical reliance only on blanket nitrogen-phosphorus-based recommendations for bulb production. Therefore, the study examined the impacts of NPSB fertilizer, vermicompost, and their integrated application on soil fertility, onion seed yield, and quality in Yaya-Gulele, Oromia, Ethiopia. Treatments comprised a factorial combination of four NPSB rates (0, 75, 150, 225 kg/ha) and four vermicompost rates (0, 1.25, 2.5, 3.75 t/ha), arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Seed quality was evaluated under laboratory conditions using a completely randomized design with four replications. The integrated application of NPSB and vermicompost improved key soil chemical properties, prolonged vegetative growth, and enhanced seed yield and quality parameters of onions compared to sole applications and the control. The highest-performing integrated treatment increased seed yield by up to threefold relative to the control. The integration of 150 kg/ha NPSB with 3.75 t/ha vermicompost was identified as the most agronomically and economically optimal treatment, producing the highest seed yield and net returns. This first report from North Shewa shows that the synergistic integration of NPSB and vermicompost significantly increases onion seed productivity and quality by improving soil fertility. This approach offers a practical and sustainable nutrient management strategy for onion seed production systems in Ethiopia.

Due to the negative impacts of climate change, soil degradation and losses of soil organic carbon (SOC) in arable agricultural ecosystems are gradually increasing worldwide. Therefore, implementing agricultural management practices that increase organic carbon (OC) sequestration in soils with intensive agricultural production is essential for maintaining soil quality (SQ) and enhancing sustainable crop production. Understanding the effects of management practices on SOC stability requires understanding the resulting changes in the SOC fractions (labile or recalcitrant), the OC contents associated with aggregates, and the SOCStocks. In the present study, soil samples were collected from three different depths in the Çarşamba Alluvial Delta Plain, located in Turkey’s semi-humid climate zone, to investigate the long-term effects (>5 years) of six different land use types (LUTs). Our results regarding average values revealed that the labile SOCLC and recalcitrant SOCRC fractions, OC contents associated with aggregates, and SOCStocks changed significantly (p < 0.01) in response to the effects of different LUTs. Compared to pasture land use, the contents of SOCLC and SOCRC were statistically decreased from 5.98 to 3.16 g/kg and from 6.37 to 3.43 g/kg (p < 0.01), respectively, in soils under soybean land use. Also, it was found that both SOC fractions reduced statistically (p < 0.01) with increasing soil depth. This study, which evaluated the long-term effects of different LUTs on SOC, revealed that SOCLC and SOCRC fractions can be successful indicators in assessing the effects of different LUTs and soil depths.

Experimental designs involving factors with a mix of fixed and random levels have been explored by few. These designs are useful when comparing a set of new treatments (fixed levels) to a population of established treatments (random levels). This approach enables partitioning variability and testing of both fixed and random effects, leading to improved estimates and more reliable inference. However, combining analyses of variance from partitioned data poses challenges, including data rearrangement, methodology, and coding complexities. Existing statistical software does not directly support combined analyses for such designs. The current study provides guidelines for conducting combined analysis of variance in linear mixed-effects models where factors have both fixed and random levels. The approach utilizes SAS PROC GLIMMIX and tools from the Comprehensive R Archive Network to compile the combined analysis of variance, followed by multiple comparisons of treatment means. The procedure is demonstrated using treatment structures in a completely randomized design, split-split-plot design, and repeated-measures design. The method can be extended to other experimental designs. This framework addresses a critical gap in existing literature by providing a practical and readily applicable analytical tool that enables integrated analysis across all factor levels within a single linear mixed-model structure, while accounting for pre-history effects associated with prior management practices in complex experimental systems.

Deficit irrigation can enhance crop water productivity (CWP; yield per water applied) but requires careful management to prevent drought-like responses that limit leaf gas exchange (i.e., water-conservative responses) and compromise yield. Grafted and ungrafted melons (Cucumis melo L.) were evaluated under three irrigation treatments: full irrigation (100 % field capacity; FC) and 70 % or 50 % deficit irrigation, based on water applied to the 100 % FC. Although deficit irrigation accentuated drought stress through the season, plants under moderate deficit irrigation (70 % FC) had similar water potential (Ψ), and only 34 and 14 % lower stomatal conductance (gs) and photosynthetic rate (Pn) than the full irrigation. Under severe deficit irrigation (50 % FC), plants had 28 and 17 % lower predawn and midday Ψ than the full irrigation. The lower plant water status of the 50 % FC resulted in water conservative-responses, and a 65 and 47 % lower gs and Pn than the 100 % FC. Yield of the 100 and 70 % FC treatments were affected by evapotranspiration demands (i.e., irrigation × year interaction), while the 50 % FC had a 40 % lower yield than the full irrigation. Moderate deficit irrigation reduced water applied by 25 % and had either a similar or a 47 % increase in CWP compared to the full irrigation. Overall, grafting improved yield by 14 %, but it was greater under full irrigation and low environmental stress. Overall, melon crop performance was maintained under a constant, moderate deficit irrigation, and this should be considered as an effective water-saving strategy for melons to cope with long-season droughts.

This study evaluated the dynamics of the bacterial community in mixtures of forage cactus and sorghum silage at different proportions, subjected to aerobic exposure periods, without or with faecal contamination. The experimental design was completely randomized in a 2 × 2 × 4 factorial arrangement, with two forage cactus proportions (20 and 80 %), absence or presence of faecal contamination and four aerobic exposure times (0, 6, 12 and 24 h). Fermentation profile, chemical composition, microbial populations and bacterial diversity were evaluated. A higher proportion of forage cactus resulted in increased pH and greater proliferation of enterobacteria, with detection of Escherichia coli after aerobic exposure. In contrast, mixtures containing 20 % forage cactus and 80 % sorghum silage showed greater fermentative stability, characterized by higher lactic acid production, reduced growth of potentially pathogenic microorganisms and lower abundance of undesirable bacterial groups after 24 h of exposure. The combination of 20 % forage cactus and 80 % sorghum silage was more effective in preserving the microbiological and fermentative quality of the mixture during aerobic exposure.

The objective of this study was to develop calibration equations for a rising plate metrer (RPM) to estimate herbage mass in irrigated ryegrass/white clover (RGWC) swards with varying proportions of plantain. A 32-ha area, divided into 0.3-ha paddocks, was randomly allocated to three treatments sown with increasing plantain seeding rates: (i) RGWC with no plantain, (ii) RGWC + 3 kg/ha and (iii) RGWC + 6 kg kg/ha. Over two production years (2021/22 and 2022/23), 1138 quadrat cuts and 228 botanical samples were collected. Data were grouped by season (late-winter, spring, summer and autumn) across treatments and years. A multivariate linear regression model incorporating compressed sward height, plantain % in sward DM and season explained 73.5% of the variation in herbage mass (R2 = 0.735; P < 0.001). Compressed sward height was positively associated with herbage mass (estimate ± SE; 145 ± 6.2 kg DM/ha per RPM unit; P < 0.001), while plantain % was negatively associated (−0.45 ± 0.12 kg DM/ha per 1% increase; P < 0.001). Season significantly affected the intercept (P < 0.001), being −128 ± 135.0 (late-winter), 82 ± 104.0 (spring), 251 ± 106.0 (summer) and −81 ± 111.0 (autumn) kg DM/ha. Validation using an independent dataset from the 2023/24 production year showed the model predicted herbage mass with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 350 kg DM/ha. These equations can be integrated into RPM devices to estimate herbage mass in rotationally grazed, irrigated RGWC swards containing plantain, accounting for both plantain content and seasonal variation.

Although carrot productivity is influenced by irrigation scheduling and planting techniques, however their interactive effects on soil properties and consequent crop performance in hilly agro-ecosystem remain insufficiently explored. It was hypothesised that optimised irrigation levels, combined with an appropriate sowing method would significantly improve soil nutrient availability, carrot yield and water productivity. A field experiment was carried out for two consecutive years (2021–22 and 2022–23) using a factorial Randomised Block Design with two sowing methods, Flat-bed (S1) and Ridge (S2) and four irrigation regimes based on irrigation water (IW)/cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) ratios of 0.6 (I1), 0.8 (I2), 1.0 (I3) and 1.2 (I4). Ridge sowing (S2) consistently outperformed over flat-bed sowing (S1) with respect to nutrient availability, yield and water productivity. The highest carrot yield (34.2 t/ha) was recorded under the combination of ridge sowing and the highest irrigation level (S2I4). Moderate irrigation level provides the balance between yield and water use, resulting in higher total water productivity, whereas the highest irrigation level (I4) improved crop water productivity and soil nutrient dynamics although it was less efficient in crop production per unit water applied. The findings demonstrate that ridge sowing, in combination with optimised irrigation regimes (I3), offer a practical strategy to enhance soil health and resource use efficiency while sustaining the carrot productivity hilly region. These findings offer a practical guidance for farmer and planners seeking to improve water management and crop performance in comparable agro-ecological environment.

Accurate crop growth models are essential for predicting yield and evaluating adaptation potentials under climate change. As one of Europe’s most important forage crops, silage maize (Zea mays L.) requires a model that captures genotype-specific growth traits and environmental variability. The current study presents HUME-Maize (Hannover University Modelling Environment), a new process-based model for silage maize, specifically adapted to conditions in Northern Europe. Model development relied on an extensive dataset from two field trials (2007–2008, 2021–2022) at five sites across Germany, involving two mid-early maize hybrids released 12 years apart. Calibration was based on the older hybrid and evaluated on both, testing the need for hybrid-specific parameter adjustments. Model scalability and predictive accuracy were assessed with a nationwide dataset covering 287 site-year combinations. The baseline model, parameterized using an older hybrid, reproduced biomass formation well (d = 0.98 and 0.95). Application to a newer hybrid without adjustment revealed systematic differences in leaf development and yield formation associated with breeding progress. Hybrid-specific adjustments of physiological traits, e.g. leaf growth rate, specific leaf area and radiation use efficiency, substantially improved model performance, reflecting the enhanced radiation use efficiency of the newer hybrid. On the national scale, the model achieved low prediction errors for final yield (16 % for the older and 21 % for the newer hybrid). Drought and nitrogen stress responses remain areas for refinement. HUME-Maize thus provides a robust framework for simulating hybrid-specific silage maize growth, supporting yield prediction and physiological analysis across hybrids and environments.

Reducing nitrogen (N) application represents a strategy for sustainable rice production. The combined effects of deep fertilization (DF) and urease inhibitor (UI) under reduced N input on ammonia (NH3) volatilization, N-use efficiency (NUE) and yield in double-cropping rice remain uncertain. A two-year field trial in Hunan, China, using early-and late-season rice (ESR and LSR), established seven treatments: conventional fertilization (CF, manually broadcast); DF with 30% N reduction; DF with 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25 and 1.5% NBPT (DF + UI1–DF + UI5, respectively); and a zero-N control (CK). In ESR and LSR, the total NH3 loss rates under CF were 46.9% and 54.2% (2024), and 51.6% and 52.5% (2025), respectively. DF + UI significantly reduced the cumulative NH3 loss rates to 6.9–16.0% (2024) and 9.4–16.4% (2025) for ESR, and to 10.6–17.4% (2024) and 3.6–9.9% (2025) for LSR. DF + UI effectively mitigated NH3 volatilization by lowering surface water ammonium, inhibiting urease activity and delaying urea hydrolysis; it also increased grain yield and apparent N recovery efficiency by 5.6–21.1% and 13.8–33.4 percentage points, respectively. These benefits were attributed to the dual effect of delaying the NH3 volatilization peak by two days while reducing its intensity, which improved synchronization between N supply and rice demand, enhanced total N uptake, promoted N accumulation and increased panicle number and spikelets per panicle. Overall, reducing N input by 30% under DF with 1.25% UI effectively reduced NH3 volatilization while enhancing NUE and rice yield in double-cropping systems.

The principles of replication, randomization and local control as put forward by R.A. Fisher a century ago are all well known and adhered to in most experiments. In some applications, however, lack of randomization is still practised. One particular area where this is common is on-farm experimentation. Hence, revisiting these important principles seems useful. In this paper, we particularly consider the use of uniformity trial data to empirically assess the validity of experimental designs in terms of the estimation of error and empirical Type 1 error rates. We compare classical designs such as the completely randomized design and the randomized complete block design to systematic designs. Moreover, following a suggestion in Fisher’s 1925 book, we propose a design optimized for a positional covariate of the plots. These designs are compared to two systematic designs. In addition to simple linear models, we consider a specific kind of spatial model for analysing systematic designs. Our results show that properly randomized designs yield valid inferences, whereas with systematic designs there is a risk of biased estimates of error. The design optimized for the positional covariate, while entailing some mild restriction on randomization, still provided valid inferences. In conclusion, our recommendation is to always use properly randomized designs.

Two experiments were conducted for the objective of isolating and characterizing lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from elephant grass and using selected strains as inoculants in elephant grass to enhance its quality as silage. A total of 156 LAB strains were identified in the different periods (0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days). The main LAB present during the fermentation period were Weissella cibaria at day 1, W. paramesenteroides at day 3, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and L. pentosus after the 7th day of fermentation. For inoculation in elephant grass, three strains (L. plantarum 28.19, L. pentosus 28.22 and Lacticaseibacillus casei 28.26) were selected. There was a significant effect of inoculant × period interaction on all silage variables analysed, except for the mould population, which was affected only by fermentation period. At the beginning of fermentation (day 1), silages inoculated with the strains L. plantarum, L. pentosus, and Lc. casei had significantly lower pH compared to the control and commercial inoculant treatments silages. The LAB population in the silages did not differ significantly during the fermentation period, except on days 1 and 7. Silages inoculated with the selected strains had significantly higher crude protein concentrations compared to the control silage. Therefore, selected strains of LAB showed promise for producing better quality elephant grass silage.

Cultural weed management through intercropping helps in weed suppression, resulting in improved crop productivity. Cereal–legume intercropping is one of the major eco-friendly approaches to suppress weeds and improve crop performance and soil fertility. Therefore, a two-year field experiment was carried out at the campus of Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Ranchi, Jharkhand during the monsoon season of 2023 and 2024 in a randomized block design with three replications using eight cropping systems. Results revealed that sole black gram ensured highest weed control efficiency (55.9%), followed by intercropping system of finger millet and black gram (1:2) (49.5%). Finger millet + black gram (1:2) and sole black gram recorded higher growth attributes and yields of finger millet and black gram, respectively. However, finger millet + black gram (1:2) also recorded high growth and yield attributes of black gram. System productivity was maximum in sole black gram (4730 kg/ha), followed by intercropping system of finger millet and black gram (1:2) (3900 kg/ha), along with protein content (23.4%) and consequently, the production economics (net return: Rupees 56830/ha; benefit: cost of 1.90). It also resulted in the highest residual soil fertility. Additionally, the combined land equivalent ratio (1.44) was higher in the 1:2 intercropping system of finger millet and black gram, indicating a 44% yield advantage. Thus, in Eastern Plateau and Hill Zone of India, an intercropping system of finger millet and black gram (1:2) is recommended for cultivation in monsoon to achieve high weed suppression, crop productivity, and economic profitability.

Use of snaplage residue in an integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS) allows adding beef production between two corn growing seasons, providing greater profitability with efficient land use. However, the effects on soil properties and the subsequent crop production remain uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the short-term impact of residue grazing on the soil physical and chemical properties and subsequent crop yield. The treatments were two stocking rates (SR): (1) low stocking rate (LS; 3.5 AU/ha) and (2) high stocking rate (HS; 7.0 AU/ha), and ungrazed control (CT). Crossbred beef heifers (n = 48) were assigned to 16 paddocks (3 heifers/paddock). Pre-planned contrasts were used CT vs. HS + LS and HS vs. LS with a significance P ≤ 0.05. Multivariate analysis was performed using principal component analysis. Initial residual mass was no different for all treatments (9,683 kg DM/ha). There was a lower final mass for grazed than ungrazed. There was also less total pre-planting mass for grazed than ungrazed. No grazing or stocking rate effects were detected for penetration resistance. The total nitrogen returned was increased by grazing (82% compared to ungrazed). The soil phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were also increased with grazing (28 and 72%, respectively). The total yield mass increased by grazing (15% compared to ungrazed) in the subsequent crop. In conclusion, grazing residue had no negative short-term effects on the physical characteristics of the soil, while increasing concentrations of macronutrients from animal supplementation positively affected subsequent corn yield.

To optimize productivity and prevent pasture degradation, management strategies such as the use of thermal sum (TS) to adjust grazing intervals can improve forage efficiency. The aim was to evaluate the effect of different TS as grazing intervals on the bromatological and structural composition of wheat cv. XFront®. The experiment followed a block design with repeated measures over time, with six plots and two treatments: T1) 330 TS and T2) 550 TS, in 2 years of evaluation. TS were defined by leaf emission speed, based on the phyllochron (110 days). The botanical (wheat) and structural composition was determined by manual separation of components. In general, management by TS did not influence (P > 0.05) the contents of dry matter (13.9%), organic matter (10.9%), in vitro dry matter digestibility (65.7%), percentage of leaves (54.0%) or percentage of other species (9.7%). However, there was an effect of TS (P < 0.05) on the percentage of dead material (7.7% vs. 10.4%), height (26.7 cm vs. 32.8 cm), dry matter yield (9369 vs. 7305 kg/ha) and yield per cycle (1787 vs. 2043 kg/ha) for TS 330 and TS 550, respectively. The variables crude protein (28.8% vs. 33.0%), hemicellulose (23.4% vs. 23.7%) and percentage of stem plus sheath (24.5% vs. 29.9%) differed between years of evaluation. In conclusion, management with lower TS, i.e., shorter rest intervals, resulted in better nutritional quality of forage biomass, due to greater tissue renewal and reduced senescence.